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aa A A
EN 8 EE

By the same Author,
4to. pp. 400,

THE KALID-I-AFGHANI,

SELECTIONS OF PROSE AND POETRY
FROM PUSHTO AUTHORS,

BEING THE TEXT BOOK FOR
GOVERNMENT EXAMINATIONS IN THE
AFGHAN LANGUAGE.

Sold at the Government Book Depot, Lahore.

PRICE TEN RUPEES.

NOTES

MUHAMMADANISM.

BY THE

MISSIONARY TO THE AFGAY
PESHAWAR.

LONDON :

Wm. H. ALLEN AND CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE,
PALL MALL, S.W.

PUBLISHERS TO THE INDIA OFFICE.
(All rights reserved.)

1875.

O s y a BE

Wm. H. Allen % Co., Printers, 13, Waterloo Place,
Pall Mall, 8. W.—(L.)

PREFACE.

THERE is a general impression amongst
European students of Islamism, that it is a
simple system of Deism unfettered by numerous
dogmas and creeds, which are supposed to be
such an insuperable hindrance to an acceptance
of Christianity. Such was the opinion of the
historian Gibbon, and it is also the view taken
by some who seek to weaken the authority of
the Christian system by extolling the merit of
its great rival creed. But even amongst the

advocates of Christianity there is altogether an

erroneous impression as to what Muhammadan-
ism really is. Dean Stanley has an admirable
chapter on the subject of Islamism in his
** Eastern Church,” but he tells his readers that
“the Qurdn contains the whole of the religion of
Muhammad ;” and Mr. Zincke in his exceedingly
interesting book “ Egypt of the Pharaohs and
the Khadive,” appears to be under the same
impression, for he says “the Qurdn is an all
embracing and suficient code, regulating every-
thing.” Whereas the true state of the case is,
that whilst the Quran is the highest authority for
Muslim doctrine, still, the “ faithful” whether
Sunni, Shiah, or Wahabi, must receive the
sayings and practices of their prophet as of
divine obligation, for in Islamism the teachings
of the “ Sacred Traditions” must be received
side by side with that of the Quran itself; and
the Muslim who would escape the suspicion of
heresy must not dare to question the teaching

of the learned doctors, whose opinions have

Vil

been handed down in numerous commentaries

and ponderous volumes of divinity.

In publishing these “Notes on Muham-
madanism” the author is fully conscious of
their imperfections,* but he ventures to hope
that they will contain information which may
be suggestive to Missionaries and others

interested in the study of Islamism.

Upon a thoughtful study of the present work,
the reader cannot fail to observe what an
important place dogmatic teaching occupies in
the system under consideration. There are
those amongst English and Continental writers
who regard all dogmatic teaching as antiquated,
und who would recommend the Christian

Missionary to keep dogma in the back ground,

* They are bona fide notes of a larger work which the
‘uthor has in course of compilation.

viil

= when dealing with such a religious system as
Muhammadanism. But Muslim divines would
spurn such teaching as unworthy of theologians,
whether of Islim or of Christianity. The-
trumpet must give no uncertain sound. It
is a solemn thing for a Christian Missionary to
be engaged day after day in unsettling the
religious opinions of immortal beings, unless
he feels that he has something good and true
to offer in the place of opinions renounced. If
we call upon the millions of Islam to loose from
their moorings amidst the reefs and shoals of a
false system, and to steer forth into the wide
ocean of religious inquiry, we must surely
direct them to some fair haven of refuge where
they will find rest and peace. It has beer
. well said by Dr. Martensen* that ‘a minc
starved by doubt has never been able to produce

a dogmatic system;” and we are quite surt
|

* Christian Dogmatics, by Dr. H. Martensen, Bishop d
Seeland, Denmark. |

i
ļ
t
I

that all who have had practical experience of
Islamism, will agree that none could be so
helpless in dealing. with Muslim doctors, as
those who are wandering about in the*un-
certainty of doubt, and cannot stand firm in
the certainty of faith.

On the other hand, Muhammadanism may
be used as a schoolmaster to bring men to
Christ, for much which is contained in its
elaborate system is expressive of man’s great
and exceeding need. The Christian controver-
sialist in dealing with Muhammadanism must
‘ever remember that it contains a two-fold
element of truth. The founder of Islamism
derived much of his system from that great
unwritten law of God which is ever speaking
to men of every nation and of every -clime;
and he was also greatly indebted to the written
law of the Holy One of Israel, although he

received it from Talmudic sources. To quote

the words of Bengel, the commentator, “ the
Law ”—whether it be that written on the
conscience, or in the pages of the Quran, or in
- God’s revealed word—“ the law hounds a man
till he betake himself to Christ; then it says
to him, ‘ Thou hast found an asylum ; I pursue

? 7?

thee no more ; thou art wise, thou art safe.

Notwithstanding its fair show of outward
observance, and its severe legal enactments,
there is something in Islim which strikes at the
very root of morals, poisons domestic life, and
(in its truest sense) disorganizes society. Free-
dom of judgment is crushed and annihilated,
and a barrier has been raised not merely
against the advance of Christianity, but against
the progress of Civilization itself. It is impos-
sible to account for this peculiar feature in
Muhammadan nations by attributing it to the
peculiarities of Oriental races or other accidental

circumstances. The sole cause lies in the

religious system which they profess, which
binds them hand and foot. For everything
in religion, in law, in life, and in thought, has
been measured for all time. Muhammadanism
admits of no progress in morals, law, or com-
merce. It fails to regenerate the man, and
it is equally powerless in regenerating the

nation.

August 17th, 1875.

CONTENTS.

ces
PAGE

I.—Muhammad . | ; P : et
II.--Islām . : : i a. oe ; g. =

III.—The Rule of Faith i ; i . 9

IV.—The Quran . i ; : : ; n

V.—The Traditions ; ; ; : . 30

Vl.—ljma . ; ; ; ; w |2 . 40

VII.—Oīas . : i ; ; ; . 43

VIIL. —Faith : : S : ; . 44

IX.—God . . A ; ; i ; . 45

X.—Angels . i ; : : ce . 46

XI.—Prophets . ‘ ; ; : . 51

XII—The Day of Judgment. . . . . 58

XIII..—Heaven . . 5 ] i : . 56

XIV.—Hell . ā ; i ; ; : . 58

XV.—The Decrees of God 5 ; . : . 59

X1V

XVI.—The Five Foundations of Practice .

XVII.—The Recital of the Kalima .
XVIII.—Prayer

XIX.—Ramazān or Fast
XX.—Zakāt or Alms

XXI.—The Hajj or Pilgrimage
XXII.—The Law .

XXIII.—Sin.

XXIV.—Farz Kafae

XXV.—Fitrat

XXVI.—Lawful Food
XXVII.—Salutations ae
XXVIII..The Muhammadan Clergy
XXIX.—Theological Literature
XXX.—ld-ul-Fitr
XXXI.—Id-u-Zoha
XXXII.—Muharram and Ashura
XXXIII.—Shab-Barāt .
XXXIV.—Akhiri Chahar Shamba .
XXXV.—Bara-Wafat

XXX VI.—Nikah or Marriage

XXX VIT.—Janaza or Burial .
XXX VIII.—The Khutbah or Sermon

PAGE
61

61
63
76
81
86
92
95
97
97
98

. 101
. 102
. 106
. 108
„ 109
. 113
. 115
„ 116
. 117
„ 118
„ 122
„ 131

XXXIX —Fagīrs or Darveshes
XL.—Zikr

XLI.—Suffism i
XLII.—The Four Orthodox Sects
XLIII.—The Shiahs
XLIV.—The Wahābis
XLV.—Jihād or Religious War
XLVI.—Martyrs
XLVII.—Slavery . a

XLVIII.—The Lord Jesus Christ .
- XLIX.—The Crucifixion of our Lord
L.—The Divinity of Christ and the Holy Trinity

PAGE
_ 188
„149
„162
„168

. 169

„ 174

. 181

. 184
. 185
. 189
„ 191
. 194

LI.—Tahrif, or the alleged corruption of our Sacred

Books

. 197

An Index of the Technical terms which occur in the

Book

e 204

I.—MUHAMMAD.

Muhammad; son of Abdullah Ibn Abdul
Muttālib, was born at Mecca, August 29th,
570 A.D, and died at Medina, June 8th,
632 A.D., aged 62. The Hijrat, or Hegira,
dates from July 16th, 622 a.p.

The earliest biographers whose works are ex-
tant in Arabic, are Ibn Ishaq, Ibn Hisham,
Wagidi, and Tabiri. Ismael Abulfida, prince
of Hamah in Syria (A.D. 1338), wrote a Life of
Muhammad in Arabic, which was translated
into Latin by John Gagnier, Professor of Arabic
at Oxford, A.D, 1723. The only Life of Mu-
hammad in English which has any pretension
to original research is that by Sir William
Muir, of the Bengal Civil Service.* Dr.
Sprenger, formerly of Calcutta, has also pub-
lished a Life of Muhammad in German.f.

* Life of Mahomet, by walter Muir. 4 vols. 8vo.
London, 1858—61.

+ Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad. A.
Sprenger. 6 vols. 8vo. Berlin, 1869.

The character of Muhammad is an historic
problem, and many have been the conjectures
as to his motives and designs. Was he an
impostor, a fanatic, or an honest man—“ a very
prophet of God?” And the problem might
have for ever remained unsolved had not the
prophet himself appealed to the Old and New
Testaments in proof of his mission. This is
the crucial test, established by the prophet
himself. He claims to be weighed in the
balance with the Divine Jesus. Having done
so, we find him wanting.

Objection has often been made to the manner
in which Christian divines have attacked the
private character of Muhammad. Why reject
the prophetic mission of Muhammad on account
of his private vices, when you receive as inspired
the sayings of a Balaam, a David, or a Solomon ?

‘We do not, asa rule, attack the character
of Muhammad in dealing with Islamism ; it
rouses opposition, and is an offensive line of
argument. Still, in forming an estimate of his
prophetical pretensions, we contend that the
character of Muhammad is an important item in
our bill of indictment. We readily admit that

bad men have sometimes been, like Balaam
and others, the divinely appointed organs of ins-
piration ; but in the case of Muhammad his pro-
fessed inspiration sanctioned and encouraged his
own vices. That which ought to have been the
fountain of purity was, in fact, the cover of the
prophet’s depravity.*

But how different it is in the case of the
true prophet David, where in the words of
inspiration, he lays bare to public gaze the
enormity of his own crimes. The deep con-
trition of his inmost soul is manifest in every
line :—“ I acknowledge my transgression and
my sin is ever before me: against Thee, Thee
only, have I sinned, and done this evil in Thy
sight.” | |

The best defenders of the Arabian prophetf
are obliged to admit that in the matter of
Zeinab, the wife of Zeid, and again, of Mary,
the Coptic slave, are “ an indelible stain ” upon
his memory; that “he is once or twice untrue
to the kind and forgiving disposition of his best

_* Vide Quran, chap. xxxiii. v. 37, and chap. lxvi. v. 1.

. + Vide Muhammad and Muhammadism, by Mr. R.
Bosworth Smith, M.A., an Assistant Master of Harrow
School. |

nature; that he is once or twice unrelenting in
the punishment of his personal enemies; and
' that he is guilty even more than once of con-
niving at the assassination of inveterate oppo-
nents ;” but they give no satisfactory explana-
_tion or apology for all this being done under
the supposed sanction of God in the Quran.

In forming an estimate of Muhammad’s pro-
phetical pretensions, it must be remembered
that he did not claim to be the founder of a
new religion, but merely of a new covenant.
He is the last and greatest of all God’s pro-
phets. He is sent to convert the world to
the one true religion which God had before
revealed to the five great Law-givers—Adam,
Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus! The
creed of Muhammad, therefore, claims to
supersede that of the Lord Jesus. And it is
here that we take our stand. We give Mu-
hammed' credit as a warrior, as a legislator, as
a poet, as a man of uncommon genius, raising
himself amidst great opposition to a pinnacle of
renown; we admit that he is, without doubt,
one of the greatest heroes the world has ever
seen; but when we consider his claims to

supersede the mission of the Divine Jesus, we
strip him of his borrowed plumes and reduce
him to -the condition of an impostor! For
whilst he has adopted and avowed his belief in
the sacred books of the Jew and the Christian,
and has given them all the stamp and currency
which his authority and influence could impart,
he has attempted to rob Christianity of every
distinctive truth which it possesses— its Divine
Saviour, its Heavenly Comforter, its pure code
of social, morals, its spirit of love and truth—
and has written his own refutation and con-
demnation with his own hand, by professing to
- confirm the divine oracles which sap the very
foundations of his prophetical pretensions. We
follow the would-be prophet in his self-asserted.
mission from the cave of Hira to the closing
scene, when he dies in the midst of the lamen-
tations of his harem, and the contentions of his
_ friends—the visions of Gabriel, the period of
mental depression, the contemplated suicide,
the assumption of the prophetic. office, his
struggles with Meccan unbelief, his flight to
Medina, his triumphant entry into Mecca—and
whilst we wonder at the genius of the hero, we

pause at every stage and inquire, “Is this the
Apostle of God whose mission is to claim
universal dominion to the suppression not
merely of idolatry, but of Christianity itself?” —
Then it is that the divine and holy character of
Jesus rises to our view, and the inquiring mind
sickens at the thought of the beloved, the pure,
the lowly Jesus giving place to that of the
ambitious, the sensual, the tme-serving hero of
Arabia. In the study of Islam the character
of Muhammad needs an apology or a defence at
every stage; but in the contemplation of the
Christian system, whilst we everywhere read
of Jesus, and see the reflection of His image in `
everything we read, the heart revels in the
contemplation, the inner pulsations of our spi-
ritual life bound within us at the study of a
character so divine, so pure. We are not
insensible to the beauties of the Quran as a
literary production, although they have without
doubt been overrated; but as we admire its
conceptions of the Divine nature, its deep and
fervent trust in the power of God, its frequent
deep moral earnestness, and its sententious
wisdom, we would gladly rid ourselves of our

recollections of the: prophet, his licentious
harem, his sanguinary battle-fields, his ambi-
tious schemes; whilst as we peruse the Christian
scriptures we find the grand central charm in
the divine character of its founder. It is the
divine character of Jesus which gives fragrance
to His words; it is the divine form of Jesus
which shines through all He says or does; it is
the divine life of Jesus which is the great cen-
tral point in gospel history. How then, we
ask, can the creed of Muhammad, the son of
Abdullah, supersede and abrogate that of Jesus,
the son of God? |

It is a remarkable coincidence that whilst
the founder of Islamism died feeling that he-
had but imperfectly fulfilled his mission,” the -
founder of Christianity died in the full con-
sciousness that His work was done—“ It is
finished.” It was in professing to produce a
revelation which should supersede that of Jesus
that Muhammad set the seal to his own refu-
tation.

* Wagidi relates that Muhammad shortly before his
death called for a ‘shoulder blade” upon which to write `
another chapter of the Quran, which should prevent them
going astray for ever. |

I1.—ISLAM.

Islam is the name given to the Muhammadan
religion by its founder. Abdul Haqq (the
- commentator on the Mishgāt) says it implies
“ submission to the divine will.” Raghib in
his dictionary of the Quran explains it as
“entering into peace (Salm) with another,”
alluding to the fact that he who embraces Islam-
ism in a Muhammadan state becomes free from
all those penalties and disabilities which belong
to one who does not embrace the faith.

In the Quran the word is used for doing
homage to God. Islām is said to be the
religion of all the prophets from the time of
Abraham, as will appear from the following
verses (Surat-ul-Imrān, ver. 78-79): * We
believe in God and in what hath been sent
down to us, and what hath been sent down to
Abraham, and Ismael, and Isaac, and Jacob,
and. the Tribes, and in what was given to
Moses, and Jesus and the Prophets from their
Lord. We make no difference between them,
and to him are we resigned (i.e. Muslims).

Whoso desireth any other religion than Islām,
that religion shall never be accepted of him,
and in the next world he shall be lost.”

Those who profess the religion of Islam are
called Musulmans, Muslims, or Momins.

Ahl 1 Kitab, “the people of the book,” is also
used for Muslims, ‘but it is also applied to Jews
and Christians by the author of the Quran.

IIL—RULE OF FAITH.
The: Muhannad: vale of fate an baseds

upon what are called the four foundations of
orthodoxy, namely, the Qurdn, or, as it is
called, Kalam Ullah, the Word of God; the
Hadts (pl. Ahādīs), or the traditions of the
sayings and practice of Muhammad; the Jma,
or the consent of the Mujtahidin, or learned
doctors; and Qras, or the analogical reasoning
of the learned with regard to precepts and
practice of the Prophet. !

In studying the Muhammadan religious
system it must be well understood that Islam-
ism is not simply the religion of the Quran,
but that all Muhammadans, whether Sunni

Shia’, or Wahabi receive the Sunna (or the
Hadis) as an authority in matters of faith and
practice. The Sunni Muhammadans arrogate
to themselves the title of traditionists, but the
Shias also receive the Hadis as binding upon
them, although they do not acknowledge the
same collection of traditions as those received
by their opponents. The Wahabis receive the
‘‘ six correct books of the Sunnis.” The example
of Muhammad is just as binding upon the |
| Muslin, as that of Him who said “ Learn of
me” is upon the Christian. Very many were
the injunctions which the “prophet” gave as
to the transmission of his sayings and practice,
and very elaborate is the canon whereby Mus-
lims arrive at what they believe to be the
example of their prophet. If, therefore, the
grand and elaborate system of morals as
expressed in the law of Islam has failed to
raise the standard of morality amongst the
nations of the earth which have embraced its
creed, it is’ not unreasonable to conclude that
its failure rests in the absence of a
example of truth.

The teaching of the Quran and Hadis is

called Usil (lit. roots), and that of divines is
called Fikah. A well-read theologian amongst

Muslims is said to be well up in “ Fikah-
Usul.”

IV.—QURAN.

The word Quran is derived from the word
garaa, to recite or proclaim. It is the name
given to the Muhammadan scriptures, which
are usually appealed to as the “‘ Quran Majid,”
the glorious Quran, or the “ Qurdn Sharif,” the
noble Quran. Furgān, or that which is divided
into sections, Al Kitab, the book, and Al Moshaf, -
the volume, are also titles mere given to
_ the Quran.

The Quran is written in Arabic prose, but
its sentences generally conclude in a long con-
tinued rhyme. The language is universally
allowed to be of the utmost elegance and
purity, and it has therefore become the
standard of the Arabic tongue. 'Muham-
madams believe that it is a book, the language
and style of composition of which are inimita-
ble by any human pen.

“The sources whence Muhammad derived
the materials of his Quran are, over and above
the more poetical parts, which are his own
creation, the legends of his time and country,
Jewish traditions based upon the Talmud, or
perverted to suit his own purposes, and the
floating Christian traditions of Arabia and S.
Syria.” * There is, however, another view
which is advocated by the late Mr. Emanuel
Deutsch, f namely, that Muhammadanism
owes more to Judaism than either to Hea-
thenism or to Christianity, and-that it is
neither more nor less than Judaism as adapted
to Arabia—plus the Apostleship of Jesus and
Muhammad, and that a great deal of the
Christianity which is found in the Quran was
derived from Jewish sources.

Muhammadans believe that the Quran was
sent down by God to the seventh or lowest
heaven, and then revealed from time to time
to the “prophet ” by the angel Gabrael. A

* Rodwell’s Translation of the Koran, p. xv. Williams
and Norgate, 1861.

+ Literary Remains of Emanuel Deutsch, w 64. John
Murray, 1874.

few chapters are supposed to have been

delivered entire, but the greater part of the
- book was given piecemeal during a period of
twenty-three years. The whole work was not
arranged until after Muhammad’s death, when
the Khalifa Abu Bakr collected the whole
“from palm leaves and skins, and from the
hearts of men,” and committed the custody of
the manuscript to Hafsa, one of the prophet’s
widows. In the thirtieth year of the Hejira,
the Khalifa Osman ordered a number of copies
to be translated from the one in Hafsa’s charge,
and burnt all the other copies which differed
from Abu Bakr’s edition.

The Quran is divided into one hundred and
fourteen chapters, which are called Surd, a
word which means a row, or series, but which
is now exclusively used for the chapters of the
Quran. They are never quoted by number, but
by the title, as Surat-i-Bagr,* Surat-i-Maida,
&c. On this account it is to be regretted that
neither Sale nor Rodwell have affixed the
actual Arabic titles of the chapters to their

-x This is the Persian form, in Arabic it would be Surat-
ul-Baqr, Ge. l

English translations of the Quran. Each
chapter commences with the usual super-
scription of “ Busmilah-hirrahman-nirrahim”
(i.e. ‘In the name of God the merciful, the
compassionate) with the exception of the ninth
chapter, the Surat-i-Baraat. Khalifa Osman
accounted for the omission of the “ Bismillah ”
from the fact that the Sura was revealed
shortly before Muhammad’s death, and that
the prophet had not given instruction on the
subject.

The chronological arrangement of the chap-
ters of the Quran is most important. In all
Arabic editions of the book they stand as they
were originally placed by Abu Bakr, who
appears to have arranged them regardless of
all chronological sequence; but Muhammadan
divines have compiled carefully arranged lists
of the order in which they are thought to have
been revealed, and Mr. Rodwell in his English
translation has adopted the chronological order,
whilst Sale has given them as they stand in the
Arabic editions. In Jelal-u-din Synty’s Itqan,*

* Al Itqan fi ‘ulum mil Quran, or Exegetic Sciences of
the Quran, by Jilal-u-din Soynty. Calcutta, 1857,

there are two chronological tables given. It
is, however, admitted by all Muhammadan
doctors that in most of the Suras there are
verses which belong: to a different date from
that of the other portions of the chapter, so
that it is impossible for the student to arrive at
any positive conclusion as to the relative dates
of each part of the Quran.

The contrast between the earlier and later
chapters is very striking *—‘“he who at Mecca
is the admonisher and persuader, at Medina is
the legislator and the warrior, who dictates
obedience, and uses other weapons than the
pen of the poet and the scribe.” When busi-
ness pressed, as at Medina, poetry makes way
for prose, and although touches of the poetical
element occasionally break forth, and he has to
defend himself up to a very late period against
the charge of being merely a poet, yet this is
rarely the case in the Meccan Suras; and we
are startled by finding obedience to God and
the Apostle, God’s gifts and the Apostle’s, God’s
pleasure and the Apostle’s, spoken of in the

* Rodwell’s Quran, p. x.

same breath, and epithets and attributes else-
where applied to Allah, openly applied to
himself, as in Sura ix. verses 118, 119.

The Quran is said to contain 6,616 verses,
but no Arabic edition has the division of verses
marked as in our English Bibles, although the
number of verses in each chapter is recorded
after the title of the Sura, in the best Arabic
copies. They are called Aydt, an Arabic word
which signifies signs. Another division of the
Quran is that of sections, called in Arabic Juz,
and in Persian and Urdu Stpāra, from Si,
thirty, and pdra, a piece or portion. There
are thirty of these sections, and it is said that
in royal mosques and at tombs of great
personages it was at one time usual to read
through the Quran in one day, and that for
this purpose thirty readers were appointed, each
reading one sipāra or section. It is, however,
far more probable that these thirty divisions
are to enable pious Muslims to recite the whole
of the Quran during the thirty days of the
sacred month of Ramazan.

The most popular division amongst the
Muslims themselves is that of Rukw (lit.

prostration) which is distinguished by the
letter ’azn on the margin of the Quran.

The various readings of the Quran are not
such as are usually understood by the term in
English authors. Muhammad said the Quran
had been sent down in “ seven dialects,” * the
difference of pronunciation which prevailed
among the various districts at the time of
Muhammad forming seven dialects. A dif-
ference both of punctuation and pronunciation
still exists; and the science of reading the
Quran is called Llm-t-Tajwid. On this subject
very learned authors have written very learned
and lengthy treatises, which appear rather to
obscure than elucidate the science of reciting
the Quran, which undoubtedly originated in
Muhammad’s desire to please the seven races
of Arabia, who each wished to-have a Quran in
their own dialect.

That various readings (such as we under-
stand by the term) did exist when Khalifa
Osman produced the first uniform edition is
more than probable; for it is related that he
sent copies of his new edition to the chief

* Vide Bokhari, Muslim, and Tirmizi.
2

military stations of the empire, and ordered all
previously existing copies to be committed to
the flames. The recension of the Quran pro-
duced by Osman has been handed down to us
unaltered; and as Sir William Muir justly
remarks, “there is probably no other book in
the world which has remained twelve centuries
with so pure a text.” It is true that the Shia’s
assert that Osman left out certain passages which
favoured Ali, but they fail to prove their charge.

Ilm i Usul or the exegesis of the Quran is a
science, some knowledge of which is absolutely
necessary to enable the Christian controversialist
to meet a Muhammadan opponent. It enables
the Muslim divine to explain many apparent or
real contradictions which exist in the Quran,
but it is also available for a similar purpose
when rightly used by the Christian in explana-
tion of the exegesis of his own Scriptures.

The words of the Quran are said to be of
four classes, Khdss, ’Amm, Mushtarak, and
Muawwal.

(1) Khāss.—Words used in a special sense.
They are of three kinds. Khusis-ul-Jinns,
special genus; Khusiis-u-Nawa, special species ;
Khusūs-ul-'atn, special individuality.

(2) "Amm.—Collective or common words
which embrace many individuals or things. |

(3) Mushtarak. — Complex words, which
have several significations, ¢.g., ’aim which
signifies an eye, a fountain, the knee, or the
sun. |

(4) Muawwal.—Words which require to be
explained, e.g., sula may mean either “ prayer”
or the ordinary daily prayers, but would be
explained by the Karina or context.

The sentences of the Quran are said to be
either Zahir, or Kahjfi, obvious or hidden.

Obvious sentences are of four classes: Zahar,
Nass, Mufassar, Muhkam.

(1) Zahir.—Those sentences, the meaning
of which is obvious without the assistance of the
context.

(2) Nass.—Sentences, the meaning of which
is manifest from the text, €.g., ** Take in marriage
of such other women as please you, two, three
or four.” Here it is manifest that the expres-
sion “such other women as please you” is
restricted.

(3) Mufassar.—Sentences which are ez-
plained by some expression in the text, e.g.,

* And the angels prostrated themselves, all of
them with one accord, save Iblis.”

It is here explained that Iblis did not pros-
trate himself. |

(4) Muhkam.—Perspicuous sentences, the
meaning of which is incontrovertible, e.g., ‘ He
(God) knoweth all things.”

Hidden sentences are either Khafi, Mushkil,
Mujmal or Mutashabth.

(1) Khafi.—Obscure sentences, e.g., © As to
a thief whether man or woman, cut ye off their
hands in recompense for their doings.” From
which it does not appear whether the command-
ment applies to “robbers of the dead” as well
as robbers of the living.

(2) Mushkil.—Sentences which are am-
biguous. ` :

(3) Mujmal.—Those sentences which are
compendious, and have many interpretations.

(4) Mutashabih.—Jntricate sentences or ex-
pressions, the exact meaning of which is difficult
or uncertain. The example usually given is
that of Alif, Lam, Mim (A.L.M.) at the com-
mencement of some of the Suras of the Quran.

The Istimal or use of words in the Quran is

divided into four sections. They are either
Hagīgat, Majāz, Sarīh, or Kindiah. !

(1) Hagigat.— Words, the meaning of which
is real or literal, being without trope or figure.

(2) Majāz.—Figurative.

(3) Sarīh.—Evident, whether real or figu-
rative. `

(4) Kinãiah.—Metaphorical, e.g., the use of
the word “separated” which may mean
“ divorced.”

The Zstidlāl or deduction of arguments, is
divided into four sections. Arguments may be
deduced from either barat, Ishārat, Dalālat,
or Igtizā.

(1) Ibārat.-—The plain sentence.

(2) Ishārat.—A sign or hint, e.g., “ Born of
him,” meaning, of course, the father.

(3) Dalālat.—The argument arising from an
expression, ¢.g., “Say not unto your parents,
‘fie!’?” From which Muhammadan Divines
argue that children are not either to abuse or
beat their parents. -

(4) Igtiza.—Demanding explanation given
in the Traditions or in any work of divinity
having authority amongst the Muslim doctors.

22 |

An acquaintance with the use of these
expressions used in the exegetical commentaries
of the Quran is of great assistance to the
Bazaar-preacher, for it often happens that

Moulvies interrupt the preacher by putting
some difficult question, which the most able
missionary will find it difficult to answer to the
satisfaction of a mixed assemblage. For in-
stance, an interesting discourse or discussion is
often interrupted by a Moulvie putting the
following question: * What did Jesus mean
when He said, ‘ All that ever came before me
were thieves or robbers ?’” The sole object of
the Moulvie being to interrupt a profitable
conversation or sermon, the best reply to such
an one would be “ Moulvie Sahib, you know
= sentences are Zahir or Khafi, hidden or evident.
That is Khafi. Hidden sentences you know are
of four kinds, Khafi, Mushkil, Mujmal, or
Mutashabih, I consider the text you have
quoted to be-Mujmal, and you must admit that
it would take up too much time to explain a
Mujmal sentence in the midst of my present
discourse.” Most probably the Moulvie will be
satisfied, for the preacher has applied a little

_ flattering unction, in supposing that the Moulvie
is learned in the principles of exegesis. We
have frequently silenced a troublesome objector,
who has introduced the subject of the Trinity
for no other purpose than to disturb the
preaching, by telling him that it was mutashabth,
1.¢., intricate, and at the same time asking him
if he knew the meaning of Alif Lam mim at
the commencement of the Surat-i-Bagr or
second chapter of the Quran. This appears to
have been our blessed Lord’s method with
troublesome objectors: ‘“ The baptism of John:
whence was it ?”

It is often painful to observe how. some of
our native preachers will attempt to explain
the sacred mysteries of our faith in the midst
of an ignorant mob. Whereas learned Muslim
doctors, if placed in the same position, would
decline to discuss mysterious questions under
such conditions. They would say, as the
Christian Divine might also say, ** Many things
in God’s word are hidden, Khafi, and cannot be
explained to such a mixed audience as this,
and besides this, in speaking of the nature
(zat) of God, there is always some fear of

blasphemy (kufr), I prefer speaking to you on
that subject alone, after the preaching is over.”

Some passages in the Qurān are contradic-
tory and are often made the subject of attack,
by Christian Divines. The Muhammadan doctor,
however, finds no difficulty in meeting such.
-= objections, for it is part of his theological
belief, that certain passages of the Quran are
Mansukh (abrogated). Passages which are
abrogated are of three kinds. (1) Those
= which were abrogated by God and withdrawn
altogether from the sacred text. (2) Those of
which the letter has been abrogated but of
which the sense remains—namely, those verses
which tradition relates were in the Qurān,
but which do not now exist, most probably
having been burnt by the order of Osman
already alluded to. (3) Those which have
been abrogated by succeeding verses, for
instance, turning to Jersusalem in prayer
fasting after the old custom, &c., &c.

It is to be regretted that the Greek verb
xatadvw in Matthew, v. 17, has been translated
in some of the versions of our Scriptures by
Mansukh. It gives Muhammadans altogether

a wrong impression as to our view with, regard
to this question. Even Doctor Pfander has
used the word in the second chapter of the first
section of his excellent work the Mizan-ul-Haqq*
in a sense which he entirely explains away
when he enters more fully upon the subject.
Christ came not to destroy or “ pull down ”’ the
law and the prophets, but we all admit that
certain precepts of the Old Testament were
abrogated by those of the New Testament.
Indeed, we further admit, that the old covenant
was abrogated by the new covenant of grace:
* He taketh away the first that he may establish
the second,” Heb. x. It must be remembered
that it is one of the many inconsistencies
chargeable to Muhammadanism that whilst the
Quran nowhere states, that the Old and New
Testaments were to be entirely “ pulled down”
or destroyed, the whole theological system of
Islam demands nothing short of the entire
destruction of God’s revealed will. The Quran .
most certainly professes to be a continuation of

* The Mizan- ul-Haqq has been translated into English
by the Rev. R. H. Weakley, and can be had at the Church
Missionary House, London. ©

God’s revelation; for wherever the abrogation
of God’s word is mentioned, it is with reference.
to one verse of the Quran abrogating a verse
given on a previous occasion. The way in
which Christian Divines have used the expres-
sion Mansukh has given rise to much miscon-
ception, and yet Muhammadan Divines are
chiefly blameable for the complication. Syud
Ahmad Khan Bahadur, c.s.1., discusses the
matter at length in one of his essays,* but like
very much which the learned Syud has written,
it does not help to clear away the difficulties
which exist between the Muhammadan and the
Christian Divine in understanding the question.
In the Quran it is, as we have said, used for
one verse cancelling another, as we read in
Surat-i-Bagr, verse 100: ‘‘ Whatever verses we
cancel, or cause thee to forget, we bring a

better or its like.” And although Muhammad
never assumed the position with reference to
the Old and New Testaments, still Muham-
madan doctors finding Christianity so utterly
opposed both in its principles and practice to

* Essays on the Life of Mahammad, by Syud Ahmad
Khan Babadur, cs.1. 'Trubner, London.

Islam have maintained that the Quran has
abrogated the previous Scriptures, although
such a doctrine is directly opposed to the plain
teaching of the Quran. itself, for in the
Surat-i- Maida verse 52, which was one of the
last portions of the the Quran given by Muham-
mad, we read: ** To thee we have sent down
the book confirmatory of the previous Scriptures
and their safeguard.” There is one grand in-
consistency in the whole system of Muham-
madanism which is too frequently over-looked
by such writers as Carlyle, Davenport and Bos-
worth Smith, namely, that it assumes a
position, which is actually unauthorized by the
very book upon which it is founded, and
yet at the same time a position which is sole
result of the teaching of that book.

If we refer to the Quran we read: “ We
believe in God, and that which hath been sent
down unto us, and that which was sent down
unto’ Abraham, and Ismael and Isaac, and
Jacob, and the tribes, and that which was
delivered to Moses, and Jesus and the prophets
from the Lord, and we make no distinction
between any of them.” And yet, this very

"28

book which “ makes no distinction between any
of them” and which is “confirmatory of the
previous Scriptures,” ignores the Crucifixion,
the Atonement, the Sacraments of Baptism,
and the Lord’s Supper, the Sonship of Christ

.. and the Fatherhood of God, thus not only

abrogating but “pulling down” and destroying
all the glorious superstructure of Christian
faith.

We reject the Quran not so much on account
of what it zs, but rather on account of what it
is not. The Quran we most readily admit
“deserves the highest praise for its conceptions
of the Divine nature,” it embodies much of a
noble and deep moral earnestness, but still it is
not what it professes to be, it pulls down what
it professes to build up, it destroys what it
professes to confirm, it is therefore simply not
Truth,;and as the counterfeit of Truth we
reject it.

According to Muhammadan Divines inspira-
tion is of two kinds.

(1) Wahi, that which is given to a prophet,
and which is used especially for the revelation
which Muhammad gave out that he had

received from Gabriel. (2) Ilham, that inspi-
ration which is said to be given toa Walt or
Saint. The latter expression is the orfe gene-
rally used by Christian missionaries for the
inspiration of the Scriptures. We believe it is
sometimes used by Arabic Divines for a higher
form of inspiration, but in the compound form
of Ilham rabbāni. There are two kinds of
wahi, viz., waht rabbani, divine inspiration, and
Wahi Qalb, the inspiration of the heart. The
former expression is the usual one for the
Quran.

The Muhammadans have no conception of a
divine revelation given in the form of our Old
and New Testament Scriptures, and the most |
plausible objection raised against the New
Testament by Muhammadan controversialists
of the present day is, that it is the Hadis or
tradition of Matthew, Mark and others, and not
the Gospel revealed to Jesus. It is therefore
necessary to correct their common idea that
the Gospel was revealed to Jesus in the same
manner as the Quran is said to have been given
to Muhammad; to show that it was the special
province of the Holy Spirit to give the New

Testament Scriptures, and that the New
Testament Scriptures came to man by the same
method’ of inspiration as the Old Testament
writings were given to the Prophets of old.
The Quran being altogether an exception to
God’s usual method of giving inspired writings
to his Prophets.

V.—THE TRADITIONS.

The Haddis (pl. Ahddis) is, as we have
already remarked, the second part of the
Muhammadan rule of faith. It forms the
body of that oral law of the Arabian legislator
which stands next to the Quran in point of
anthority, being considered by all Muham-
madans, whether Sunni, Shia, or Wahabi,* as
a supplement to that book. The collections of
these traditions are called Hadis, being records
of the sayings of the prophet, but they are
also called Sunna, a word which signifies
custom, or regulation.

. ©The Wahabis so far from rejecting the traditions, as
some English authors state, call themselves Ahl i Hadis,
the people of the traditions.

Muhammad gave very special injunctions
respecting the faithful transmission of his
sayings; for example it is related by Tirmizi,
that the Prophet said, ‘“ Convey to other per-
sons none of my words except those which ye
know of a surety. Verily he who purposely
represents my words wrongly, would find a
place nowhere for himself but in fire.”

But notwithstanding the severe warning
given by Muhammad himself, it is admitted by
all Muslim divines that very many spurious
traditions haye been handed down. Abu Daud
only received four thousand eight hundred, out
of five hundred thousand, and even after this
careful selection he states that he has mentioned
“ those which seem ‘to be authentic and those
which are nearly so.” -Out of forty thousand
persons who have been instrumental in handing
down traditions of “the Prophet,” Bokhari
only acknowledged two thousand as reliable
authorities. It will, therefore, be seen how
unreliable are the traditions of Islam although
they are part of the rule of faith. Such being
the case, it is not surprising that ’l/m-7-Hadis,
or the Science of Tradition, has become a most

important branch of Muslim Divinity, and that
the following canons have been framed for the
= reception or rejection of traditions.

(1) With reference to the character of the
narrators. The respective merits of those who
have handed down the tradition are considered
in the. following order.

Sahih or genuine. Used fora Hadis, the nar-
rators of which were truly pious persons, and
who have been distinguished for their integrity.

Hasan or mediocre.—A Hadis the narrators
of which were esteemed for their piety, but
still do not approach mm moral excellence to
those of the Sahih class. The disputed claims `
of narrators to the Sahih or Hasan classes,
have proved to be a fruitful source of learned
discussion, and very numerdus are the works
written upon the question.

Z aif or weak—used for a Hadis whose nar-
rators are of questionable authority.

Gharib or scarce.—A Hadis which is related
by those persons who have been instrumental
in handing down but few traditions.

(2) With reference to the links in the chain
of the narrators there are four classes.

Marfū—A Hadīs which is said to have been
related by Muhammad. If.the chain of narra-
tors is complete it is called Marfw Muttasil
but if not, Marfa’ Mungata.

Mursal.—A Hadīs which was related by one
of the companions of “the prophet.”

Mugti.—A Hadis related by persons who
conversed with the “ companions.”

Rawdyat.—A_ Hadis which commences with |
the words “‘it is related” without the authority
being given.

(3) With reference to the manner in which
they have been transmitted there are three
grades. |

Mutawétr.—A tradition which, from the
time of' Muhammad and ever afterwards, has
been accepted as authentic and genuine and to
which no objection has ever been raised. Syud
Ahmud Khan, c.s.1., tells us that there are
only jive such traditions ! The learned Syud,
however, is not considered an orthodox Muslim
by his co-religionists in India, and, therefore,
cannot be regarded as a true exponent of the
Muslim creed. |

Mashir.—A tradition which in every age

has been considered genuine by some learned
Doctor. This is the term generally used for
traditions which were at first recorded by a
few individuals but afterwards became generally
known. |

Khabar i Wahid.—A tradition which has been
related by one person. It is a disputed point
amongst the learned whether a Khabar i Wahid
can form the basis of Muslim doctrine. It is
an universal canon that no tradition can be
received which is contrary to the Quran, and it
is related that when Ayesha heard some one
say that Muhammad had taught, that the dead
could hear, she rejected the tradition as spurious,
because it was contrary to the teaching of the
Quran.

Whatever may be the difference of opinion as
to the authority of the various traditions, it must
be remembered that they form the ground-
work of the different schools of thought of the
Muhammadan religion. It is, therefore, im-
possible for European critics to form a just
. estimate of the Muhammadan creed without
being acquainted with those traditions which are
generally received ag authentic and genuine.

European writers are unfortunately under
the impression that the “ Muhammadan revival”
is a going back to “first principles,” as ex-
pressed in the Quran, whereas it is, as we have
already remarked, a revival of the study of the
traditions concerning their Prophet, which
study has undoubtedly been promoted by the
establishment of printing presses in Egypt,
Turkey and India. Not that we think Islam-
ism will present any fairer proportions even
when deprived of those excrescences which
are supposed to have been the preternatural
_ growth of tradition, as long as the pilgrimage
has the so-called divine sanction of the Quran,
and the position of woman is regulated by the
same “divine oracles.” _

The following are the six principal col-
lectors of Hadis received by the Sunni Mu-
hammadans:—

1. Muhammad Ismail Bokhārī * |

Born 194 A.n. Died A.H. 256.
2. Muslim, |
Born 204 a.m. Died a.n. 261.

* The names in Italics denote the usual title of the book.

'8. Abu Isa Muhammad Tirmizi,
Born 209 a.n. Died A.n. 276.
4. Abu Daud,
| Born 202 a.n.. Died A.n. 275.
5. Abu Abdul Rahman Nasaz,
Died a.n. 308.
6. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Lbn-i-Majah,
Died a.n. 293.
Some divines substitute the following for
that of Ibn-t-Majah Moatta :—
Imam Malik, Born 95 a.n. Died 179 a.u.
The following are the collections of Hadis
received by the Shias :—
1. The Kaf. By Abu Jafar Muhammad, |

A.H. 329.

2. The er marae By Shekh
Ah, A.H. 881.
8. The Tahzīb. By Shekh Abu Jafar
Muhammad, = AH. 466.

4. The Istībsār. By the same author.
5. The Nahaj ul Balaghat. By Syud Razi,
A.H. 406.
` Copies of the “six correct” books of tradi-
tion received by the Sunnis, together with the
seventh work by Imam Malik have been litho-

graphed and can be purchased in the book shops
of Delhi, Lucknow and Bombay, but the work
most read is the Mishkāt-ul- Musābīh (the niche
for lamps) which is a collection of the .most
reliable traditions. This work was originally
in Arabic, but it was translated into Persian in
the reign of Akbar. It was rendered into
English by Captain Matthews, and published
in Calcutta in 1809. The English translation
has been long since out of print, but efforts
are being made by the author of these notes
for its republication.

The most trustworthy of the various collec-
tions of traditions is the one usually called
Bokhari. It was compiled by Abu Abdullah
Muhammad ibn-i-Ismaīl a native of Bokhāra.
In obedience to instructions he is said to have
received in a vision, he set himself to commence
the collection of all the current traditions
relating to Muhammad. He succeeded in
collecting not fewer than six hundred thousand
traditions, of which he selected only 7275 as
trustworthy! These he recorded in his work,
but it is said that he repeated a two rikat
prayer before he wrote down any one of the

7275 traditions which he recorded. There is,
therefore, every reason to believe that the.
compilers of the books of tradition were sincere
and honest in their endeavours to produce
correct and well authenticated traditions of
their prophet’s precepts and practice, but as
Sir William Muir remarks “the exclusively
oral character of the early traditions deprives
them of every check against the licence of
error and fabrication.”

Sir William Muir has very ably dwelt upon
the unsatisfactory character of Muhammadan
tradition in the first volume of his “ Life of
Mahomet” to which Syud Ahmud Khan,
has written a reply in a supplement to his essay
on Muhammadan tradition. The learned Syud
is in this, as in almost everything he writes on
the subject of religion, his own refutation. Sir
William Muir reveals to the public “the hig-
gledy-piggledy condition, the unauthenticity
and the spuriousness of Muhammadan tradi-
tions,” and surely Syud Ahmad Khan does
but confirm the same when he writes, * All
learned Muhammadan divines of every period
have declared that the Quran only is the

Hadees mutawadtir ; but some doctors have
declared certain other Hadeeses also to be
Mutawatir, the number, however of such
Hadeeses not exceeding five. Such are the
Hadeeses that are implicitly believed and ought
to be religiously observed.”

But although the traditions of Muhammad
are shrouded with a degree of uncertainty
which is perplexing, not to say vexatious, to
the student of history, still there can be no
doubt as to the place they were intended to,
and still do, occupy in the theological structure
of Islam. The example of Muhammad is just
as binding upon the Muslim as that of our
Divine Lord and Saviour is upon the Christian.
And everything Muhammad said with reference
to religious dogmas and morals is believed to
have been inspired by God; by a “wahi ghair
mutlū” or an inspiration similar in kind to that
which we believe to have been given to the
inspired writers of our Christian Scriptures.

VI.—IJMA.’

Ijma’ is the third foundation of the Muham-
madan rule of faith. It literally means collect-
ing or assembling, and in Muslim divinity it
expresses the unanimous consent of the Mujta-
hidīn; or, as we should call it, “‘ the unanimous
consent of the Fathers.” A Mujtahid is a
Muslim divine of the highest degree of learning,
a title usually conferred by Muslim rulers.
There are four foundations of Ijma’: (1) Itifāq-
t-Qaul, unanimous consent expressed in declara-
tion of opinion; (2) Itifag-i-F7l, expressed in
unanimity of practice; (3) Infag-t-Saqut,
when the majority of the Mujtahidin signified
their tacit assent to the opinions of the minority
by “silence” or non-interference; (4) Itifäq-
i-Taqīrrī, the unanimous decision of the
Muj tahidin, after careful discussion.

The Mujtahidin, capable of' making Ijma;
must be “men of learning and piety, not
heretics, nor fools, but men of judgment.”

There is great diversity of opinion as to up
to what period in the history of Islam, Ijma’
can be accepted. Some doctors assert that
only the Ijma’ of the Mujtahidin who were
Asahab (companions), others, that of those who
were not only “companions” but “descendants”
of the “ Prophet,” can be accepted whilst others
accept the Ijma’ of the Ansdrs (helpers) and of
the Muhājarīn (fugitives) who. were dwellers
in Madina with Muhammad. The majority of
learned Muslim divines, however, appear to
think that [jma’ may be collected in every age,
although they admit that, owing tothe numerous
divisions which have arisen amongst Muham-
madans, it has not been possible since the days
of the Taba’ Taba’in (1.¢., the followers of the
followers of the companions).

The following is considered to be the relative
value of Ljma’.

That of the Asahab (companions) is equal to:
Hadis Mutawatir. That which was decided
afterwards, but in accordance with the unani-
mous opinion of the Asahab, is equal to Hadis
Khabar-1- Mashūr, and that upon which there

was diversity of opinion amongst the Asahab,
but has since been decided by the later Mujta-
hidin is equal to Hadīs. Khabar-i- Wahid.

There is also difference of opinion as to the
authority upon which to found an Jma.
Some doctors say Ijma’ can be based upon a
Hadīs which is Khabar-1-Wahid, whilst others
think that even Qids is sufficient. _

Amongst the Shiahs, we believe, there are
still Mujtahidin whose Ijma is. accepted, but
the Sunnis have four orthodox schools of inter-
pretations, named after their respective founders
Hanifi, Shafai, Maliki, and Hambali. The
Wahabis for the most part reject Ijma’ collected
after the death of “ the Companions.”

From these remarks, it will be easily under-
stood what a fruitful source of religious
dissension and sectarian strife this third founda-
tion of the rule of faith is. Divided as the
Christian Church is by its numerous sects, it
will compare favourably with Muhammadanism
even in this respect. Muhammad, it is related,
prophesied that as the Jewish Church had been
divided into seventy-one sects! and the Chris-

tians into seventy-two! so his followers would
be divided into seventy-three sects ;* but every |
Muslim historian is obliged to admit that they
have far exceeded the limits of Muhammad’s

prophecy.f

VIL—QIAS.

Qids (Lit. to compare) is the fourth founda.
tion of the Rule of Faith, and expresses the
analogical reasoning of the learned with regard
to the precepts and practice of Muhammad.

There are four conditions of Qids: (1) That
the precept or practice upon which it is founded
must be of common (2:6., "Amm) and not of
special (?.e., Khāss) application. (2) The.

* The 73 sects are distributed as follows :—

The Mutazilah are divided into 21 sects.

Shia ; :

Khwārij .
Murjihah.
Najariah. .
Jabariyah

Mushabiah
Sunni.

-7 co
co | m= bd 20 CD OF OT mm

ł According to Shah Abdul Qadir Jilāni there are 150
sects. 2

cause, (Illat) of the injunction must be known
and understood. (3) The decision must be
based upon either the Qurdn, the Hadis, or the
Ijma'. (4) The decision arrived at must not
be contrary to anything declared elsewhere in
the Quran and Hadis.

Qids is of two kinds, Qids-i-Jili or evident,
and Ozās-2-Khafī or hidden.

An example of the first is as follows:—
Wine is forbidden in the Quran under the word
Khamar, which literally means anything in-
toxicating; it is therefore evident that opium
and all intoxicating drugs are also forbidden.
- This is Qiäs-i-Jili. Qids-i-Khafi is seen in
the following example:—In the Hadis it is
enjoined that one goat in forty must be given
'to God. To some poor persons the money may
be more acceptable, therefore, the value of the
goat may be given.

VITI.—FAITH.

Faith is defined as.“ the belief of the heart
and the confession of the mouth.”™ It is of two
kinds—Imdn-i-Mujmd and Imdan-i-Mufassal.

Iman-i-Mujmil is a simple expression of
faith in the teaching of the Quran and the
Hadis. |

Imān-i-Mufassalis a belief in the six articles
of faith, viz.:—1. The Unity of God. 2. The
Angels. 3. The Quran. 4. The Prophets.
5. The Day of Judgment. 6. Predestination,
or the Decrees of ‘God. |

1X.—GOD. .

The nature of God as expressed by Imām

Ghazali* is as follows:—' God is one. He
hath no partner. He is unigue, without any
like Him. Uniform, having no contrary.
Separate, having no equal. Ancient, having
no first. Eternal, having no beginning.
Remaining for ever, having no end. Con-
tinuing to eternity, having no termination.
He remains without failing. He persists with-
out ceasing to be, and never did cease and
never shall cease to be described by glorious
` attributes, nor is subject to any decree so as to

` * The whole of Ghazali’s treatise on God will be found
in Ockley's Saracens. |

be determined by any precise limits or - set
times, but is First and Last. He is not a body
endued with form, nor a substance circum-
scribed with limits, or determined by measure.
He does not resemble bodies, as they are
capable of being measured or divided. Neither
is he a substance, nor do substances exist in
Him. He is not an accident, nor do accidents
exist in Him. He is not determined in
quantity, nor comprehended by bounds, nor
circumscribed by differences of situation, nor
contained in the heavens. He sits upon His
throne after that manner which He Himself
hath described, and in that sense only.”

X.—THE ANGELS.

The existence of angels ( Maliq) and their
purity are absolutely required to be believed in
by the Quran, and he is reckoned an infidel who
denies that there are such beings, or hates any
of them or asserts any distinction of the sexes.
The Muhammadans reckon four archangels.
(1) Jibrail (Gabriel,) who is God’s messenger ;

47
(2) Michail (Michael), who is the protector of .
the Jews; (3) Jsrafil, who will sound the last
trumpet at the resurrection; (4) Azrail, the
‘angel of death. Muhammad undoubtedly
obtained the names of these archangels from
the Scriptures and Jewish tradition, although
in the Apocryphal Book of Enoch* the names
of the six archangels are Uriel, Raphael, Raquel,
Michael, Sarakiel, Gabriel—a fact which may
be cited as an additional proof, that when
Mudammad availed himself of Jewish tradi-
tions, he quoted or adopted them with the same
want of accuracy as when he appealed to the
Divine word of God.

There are also the two recording wake
called the Mua'ggibāt, or the angels who con-
tinually succeed each other, who record the
good and evil actions of a man, one standing at
his right hand and another on his left. These
are also called the Kirdm-ul-Katbin (the
exalted writers). The angel who has charge
of Heaven is Rezwān and the angel who
presides over Hell is Malik.

_ * Book of Enoch translated by Archbishop Laurence,
chapter xx.

Munkir and Nakir are described by Muham-
mad as two black angels with blue eyes who
visit every man in his grave, make him sit up
and examine him as to his faith in God and in
Muhammad his prophet. If the answer is
satisfactory, he will be allowed to sleep on in
peace, but if he replies that he knows nothing
of “God's Apostle,” then he will be struck
with an iron hammer called Mitragat, and he
will roar out, and his cries will be heard by all
animals that may be near his grave excepting
men and genii.* This exciting ceremony is
said to take place as soon as the funeral party
have proceeded forty paces from the grave!

Enlightened Muhammadans of the present
day attempt to explain all this in a figurative
sense, but in vain, for there is a very trust- |
worthy tradition, recorded both by Bokhari
and Muslim, to the effect that Muhammad
related that he himself heard the infliction of
torment on infidels in their graves when passing
through the grave-yard, and that his camel
was frightened by their groans! This is one
of the many instances of Muhammad’s supersti-

* Mishgāt, Book I, Chap. v.

tious belief which the more recent Muham-
. madan divines endeavour to explain in a meta-
phorical sense. We have, however, shown in
@ previous article that the traditions of Bokhari
are of considerable historical weight, so that
there can be little doubt that Muhammau
believed “the punishments of the grave” to be
real and literal, which is opposed to the teaching
of God’s revealed word (vide Ecc. ix. 10, xii.
7; Psalm cxlvi. 4.)

The Devil is said to be a fallen angel who
was turned out of Paradise because he refused
to do homage to Adam.* He is called Jblts, a
word which is most probably derived from
balas, a wicked or profligate person, and also
Shitān (Satan). Besides angels and devils,
there are said to be a distinct order of creatures
called Jinn (Genii) who were created of fire
some thousands of years before Adam. Accord-
ing to tradition the species consists of five
distinct orders:—1. Janns. 2. Jinns. 3.
Shitāns. 4. Ifrīts. 5. Marids.

Their chief abode is the mountains of Qāf,
which are supposed to encircle the world.

* Surat-ul-Baqr (11.) ver. 33.
4

There are good and evil Genii. If good,
they are exceedingly handsome, if evil, they |
are horribly hideous. The evil genii are said
to have been at liberty to enter any of the
seven heavens till the birth of Jesus, when they
were excluded from three of them. On the
birth of Muhammad they were forbidden the
other four heavens. They continue, however,
to ascend to the confines of the lowest heavens,
and there listen to the conversations of the
angels respecting the decrees of God, which
they sometimes impart to men by means of
talismans and invocations.

The good genii are Muslims, and perform all
the religious duties of the faithful.

King Solomon is said to have had great
power over the genii by means of his magic
ring.*

Students of Islamism must bear in mind that
most of the absurd stories of the Genii are
related in the Quran, and have, therefore,
received from Muhammad all the authority of
a divine revelation.

* The second Targum on Esther 1—2,; mentions the
four classes of Genii which were given into the power of
King Solomon.

XI.—PROPHETS. |

The number of prophets, which have been sent
by God, are said to be 224,000, or, according to
another tradition, 124,000. Of these 313 were
Apostles sent with special commissions, to
reclaim the world from infidelity and super-
stition.

Six brought new laws which successively
abrogated the preceding and have special titles
or kalama.* |

1. Adam (Adam) Sufi-Ullah, i.e., the
Chosen of God. |

2. Nuh (Noah) Nabi- Ullah, i.e., the Preacher
of God.

3. Ibrahīm (Abraham) Khalil- Ullah, i.e., the
Friend of God.

4. Musā (Moses) Kalim- Ullah, i.e., one who
conversed with God.

* Dr. Pfander in the second chapter of Mizān-ul-Hagg
states that Muhammadan Doctors assert that by the descent
of the Psalms the Torah was abrogated. Such, however, is
not the case, for the Psalms are not said to have abrogated the
Torah, and consequently David has no special title or
Kalama.

5. "Isa (Jesus) Ruh-Ullah, i.e., the Spirit of
God.

6. Muhammad Rusil-Ullah, t.e., the Mes-
senger of God.

The number of sacred books delivered to
man are said to have been one hundred and
four, viz. :—

| Ten to Adam:
Fifty to Seth (Sish):
Thirty to Enoch (Edris) :
Ten to Abraham:
The Towrat to Moses: .
The Zabur to David:
The Injil to Jesus:
The Quran to Muhammad.

The one hundred scriptures given to Adam,
Seth, Enoch and Abraham are termed Sahifa
(a pamphlet), and the other four Kitab (a book),
but all that is necessary for the Muslim to
know of these books is supposed to have been
retained in the Quran. -

The Jewish Rabbi Abraham Geiger has traced
most of Muhammad’s ideas of Judaism to Tal-
mudic sources.” .

* « Was hat Mohammad aus dem Judenthume aufgen-
nommen.'—A. Geiger, 8vo. pp. 205. Bonn, 18383.

Luqman-i-Hakim (supposed to have been
Æsop) and Alexander the Great are also con-
sidered to have been prophets by some
Muhammadan divines. Muhammad’s enume-
ration of the Old Testament prophets, both as
to name and chronological order, is exceedingly
confused.

XII.—THE DAY OF JUDGMENT.

Oīāmat, (lit. standing,) or the day of resur-
rection and judgment, is a time which all
Muhammadans allow is a perfect secret and
known only to God. But they say that the
approach of the day of judgment will be known
by twenty-five signs.* *

1. The decay of faith among men.

2. The advancing of the meanest persons to
dignity.

8. That a maid-servant shall become the
mother of her mistress.

4. Tumults and seditions.

5. A war with the Turks.

6. Great distress in the world.

* Vide Preliminary Discourse in Sales Koran.

7. That the provinces of Irak and Syria shall
refuse to pay tribute.

8. That the buildings of Medina shall extend
to Yahab.

9. The sun rising in the west.

10. The appearance of a remarkable Beast
which shall rise out of the earth in the temple.
at Mecca. | !

11. War with the Greeks and the taking of
Constantinople by 70,000 of the posterity of
Isaac.

12. The coming of Masih ul Dajjal or Anti-
christ. | =

13. The coming of Jesus Christ.

14. War with the Jews.

15. The ravages made by Yajūj and Majūj
(Gog and Magog).

16. A smoke which shall fill the whole
earth.

17. An eclipse of the moon.

18. The return of the Arabians to idolatry.

19. The discovery of a heap of treasure by
the retreating of the river Euphrates.

20. The demolition of the temple at Mecca.

21. The speaking of beasts and inanimate
things.

22. A breaking out of a fire in Yaman.

23. The appearance of a remarkable man
who shall drive men before him with his staff.

24. The coming of Imam Mahdi, the
director.*

25. A mighty wind which shall sweep away
the souls of all who have but a grain of faith in
their hearts.’

The following is a succinct account of the
day of judgment, translated from a Muham-
madan book :—“ Then shall God bring all men
back and raise them again, and restore to them
their souls, and gather them together. He
will then call for the books in which have been
written the good and evil actions of all men.
Then He will judge them in equity and weigh
the balance of their works, and will make retri-
bution to every soul according to what he has
done. Some shall enter Paradise through His
goodness and mercy, and some shall go to hell.
No Muslim shall remain in hell for ever, but
shall enter into Paradise, after they have

* Imam Mahdi is said by the Shias to have been their
twelfth Imam, Abu Kasim; but who will come again in the
last days.

suffered according to their sins, for believers
shall remain for ever in Paradise, and the
unbelievers in hell-fire.”’

Strāt is a bridge which all must pass over
on the day of judgment. It is said to extend
over the midst of hell, and to be sharper than
the edge of a sword. In passing it the feet of
the infidel will slip, and he will fall into hell-
fire; but the feet of the Muslim will be firm,
and carry him safely to Paradise.

XIII.—HEAVEN.

There are said to be seven heavens or stages
of celestial bliss—

1. Dār-ul-jalāl.—The abode of glory.

2. Dār-ul-Salām.—The abode of peace.

8. Jannat-ul-Marāt.—The garden of mirrors.

4. Jannat-ul-Khuld.—The garden of eter-
nity. |

§. Jannat-ul-Naim.—The garden of delights.

6. Jannat-ul-Firdaus.—The garden of Para-
dise. |

7. Dar-ul-Qarar.—The everlasting abode.

The sensual delights of the Muhammadan

Paradise are proverbial, but some divines who
feel this to be a vulnerable point in their system,
endeavour to explain the descriptions of heaven
which are given in the Quran in a figurative
sense; evidence can, however, be produced
from the traditions of Muhammad which proves
that the prophet himself understood them in
their literal interpretation.

But in addition to the seven divisions of
celestial bliss, there are said to be seven fir-
maments (asmān). |

1. Of pure virgin silver, which is Adam's
residence.

2. Of pure gold, which is Enoch’s and John
Baptist’s. |

3. Of pearls, which is Joseph’s.

4. Of white gold, which is Jesus’.

5. Of silver, which is Aaron’s.

6. Of ruby and garnet, which is Moses’.

7. Of crystal, which is Abraham’s.

Muhammadans undoubtedly get their tra-
dition of seven heavens from the Talmud, but
the Jewish tradition with reference to the
seven heavens was a more sensible arrange-

ment than that of the Muhammadans.

The seven heavens of mg Jews are as
follow :—

1. The vellum or curtain.

2. The expanse or firmament.

3. The clouds of ether.

4. The habitation where the temple of
Jerusalem and the altar are situated, and
where Michael the great prince offers sacrifice.

5. The dwelling place, where troops of
angels sing.

6. The fixed residence, where are the trea-
‘sures of snow and. hail.

7. The Aroboth, or special place of. glory.

XIV.—HELL.

There are also said to be seven divisions of
hell or dozakh

1. Jahannam.*—A deep pit for guilty Mu-
hammadans.

2. Lazwa.—A blazing flame for the Chris-
tians.

* Jahannam is the Arabic form of the Greek yeevva,
and it is remarkable that the word should be used for a

purgatorial hell and not ays which according to the Papists
denotes that state.

. Hattama.—An intense fire for the Jews.
. Suir.—A flaming fire for the Sabians.
. Saqur.—A scorching heat for the Magi.
. Juhin.—A huge hot fire for idolators.
7. Hawia.—The bottomless pit for hypo-
crites. |
The situation of hell, whether above the
heaven or beneath in the earth, is a matter of
dispute.

oS Ot pe C0

XV.—THE DECREES OF GOD.

Tagdīr, or the absolute decree and pre-
destination of both good and evil, is the sixth
artīcle of the Muslim's creed. The orthodox
belief is that whatever hath or shall come to
pass in this world, whether it be good or bad,
proceedeth entirely from the divine will, and is
irrevocably fixed and recorded in the preserved
tablet.

Of this doctrine Muhammad makes great use
in his Quran, and all those who have had any
practical acquaintance with the lives of Mu-
hammadans, know well to what extent it

influences the daily life of every Muslim. It
is not only urged as a source of consolation in
every trial, but as a palliation of every crime.
“It was written in my taqdir,” (fate) is an
excuse familiar to every European who has
had much intercourse with Muslim servants or
soldiers. |

The following is a translation of an Arabic
treatise on the subject: “ Faith in the decrees
of God, is that we believe in our heart and con-
fess with our tongue that the most High God
hath decreed all things so that nothing can
happen in the world, whether it respects the
conditions and operations of things, or good
or evil, or obedience and disobedience, or
faith and infidelity, or sickness and health,
or riches and poverty, or life and death, that is
not contained in the written tablet of the
decrees of God. But God hath so decreed
good works, obedience, and faith, that He
ordains and wills them, and that they may
be under His decree, His salutary direction,
His good pleasure and command. On the
contrary, God hath decreed, and does ordain
and determine evil, disobedience and infidelity ;

yet without His salutary direction, good plea-
sure and command; but being only by way
of seduction, indignation, and prohibition.
But whosoever shall say that God is not
delighted with good faith, or that God hath
not an indignation against evil and unbelief,
he is certainly an infidel.”

XVI.—THE FIVE FOUNDATIONS
OF PRACTICE.

The five pillars or foundations of practice in
Islam are :—

1. The recital of the Kalima—* There is
but one God, and Muhammad is His prophet.”

2. Sula. The five stated periods of prayer.

3. Roza. The thirty days fast of Ramazan.

4. Zakat. The legal alms. |

5. Hajj. The pilgrimage to Mecca. To
be performed at least once in a lifetime.

XVII..THE KALIMA.

The Recital of the Kalima or Creed, is the
first of the ‘five foundations, or pillars of

practice in Islam. It consists of the following
sentence which is always repeated in Arabic :—

« La-il-la-hah, Il-lal-lā-ho. Muhammad, urr
Rasūl, ul-lah.”

“There is no other God but God, and
Muhammad is the Messenger of God.”

When any one is converted to Islamism* he
is required to repeat this formula,, and the
following are the conditions required of every
Muslim with reference to it :—

1.—That it shall be repeated aloud, at least, °
once in a life-time.

2.—That the meaning of it shall be fully
understood.

3.—That it shall be believed in “by the
heart.” | !

4.—That it shall be professed until death.

5.—That it shall be recited correctly.

6.—That it shall be always professed and
declared without hesitation.

It would exceed the limits of these notes to
give a full statement of all that is implied in

+ Circumcision is an institution of Islamism, but it is
not incumbent upon adult converts, the recital of the creed
being sufficient.

this short confession of faith, a full exposition
of the creed has been given by the celebrated
GhazAli, a scholastic divine who is called “the
Huyut-ul-[slam.” This author’s exposition of
the Muslim’s creed is translated into English
in Ockley’s History of the Saracens.
Something similar to this celebrated symbol
of the Muhammadan creed appears to have
existed in Arabia previous to the foundation of
Islamism. Dr. Arnold in his work on “ Islam
and Christianity,”* quotes the following prayer
from the writings of Abulfaraj, which is said
to have been used by the idolatrous Arabians :—
‘““T dedicate myself to Thy service, O God!
Thou hast no companion, except Thy com-
panion, of whom Thou art absolute Master of
whatever is his.”

XVHI.—PRA YER.

Prayer (Arabic Sula, Persian and Hindustani
Namāz, Pushto Nmūz) is the second of the

* « Tslam and Christianity,” by Rev. J. M. Arnold, D.D.
(Longmans, London, 1874.) It is the most scholarly work
which has yet appeared on the subject, and is a most able
refutation of Islamism. Dr. Arnold was formerly a
Missionary of the Church Missionary Society in India.

five foundations of practice in Islām. The
constant round of devotion which characterizes
Muhammadan nations.is a very remarkable
phenomenon in the system. We translate the
words Sula and Namdz by the English word
prayer, although this “second foundation” of
the religion of Muhammad is something quite
distinct from that prayer which the Christian
‘poet so well describes as the “soul’s sincere
desire uttered or unexpressed.” It would be
more correct to speak of the Muhammadan
Namāz as a service; “ prayer” being more cor-
rectly rendered by the Arabic dwa. In Islim
prayer is reduced to a mechanical act, as
distinct from a mental act, and in judging’ of
the spiritual character of Islamism, we must take
into careful consideration the precise character
of that devotional service which every Muslim
' is required to render to God at least jive times
a day, and which, undoubtedly, exercises so
great an influence upon the character of the
followers of Muhammad.

It is absolutely necessary that the service
should be performed in Arabic; that the clothes
and body of the worshipper should be clean,

and that the praying place should be free from
allimpurity. Itmay be said either privately, or
in a company, or in a mosque—although services
said in a mosque are more meritorious than
those said elsewhere.

It is always preceded by ablution (wazu),*
and if said in a mosque by the Azdn and
Igāmat, terms which we shall not now stay to
explain.

The regular form of prayer begins with the
Niyyat and is performed as follows :—

The Niyyat, said standing with the hands on either side.

“I purpose to offer up unto God, with a
sincere heart this morning (or as the case may
be) with my face—Qibla-wards two (or as the
case may be) rikāt prayers Farz (Sunnat or
Nafal.) |

The Takbir-i-Tahrimah, said with the thumbs touching
the lobules of the ears—

* God is great!”

The Qiam or standing position. The right hand placed

upon the left, below the navel, and the eyes looking to

*Wazu is the ablution of the face, hands feet, &c., which
is necessary before every time of prayer. Ghusal or the
washing of the whole body is performed after certain legal

defilements.
5

the ground in self-abasement. During which the Subhān
is said as follows :-—

Holiness to Thee, O God!”
* And praise be to Thee!”
“Great is Thy name!”
“Great is Thy greatness!”
‘There is no God but Thee!”
* The Taiz is then said as follows:—
“T seek refuge from God from cursed Satan.”
After which the Tasmiah is repeated.
‘In the name of God the compassionate the
merciful.” -
Then follows the Fatihah, viz., the first chapter of the
Quran. `
‘Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds!”
«The compassionate, the merciful!”
“ King on the day of reckoning!”
“Thee only do we worship, and to Thee do
we cry for help.”
“ Guide Thou us in the straight path,”
“The path of those to whom Thou hast been
gracious ;” |
“ With whom Thou art not angry,”
“ And who go not astray.” Amen.

After this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters
of the Quran as he may wish; he should, at least, recite one

long or two short verses. The following chapter is usually
recited namely, the Surat-ul-Ikhlis or the CXIT chapter: —
“Say: He is God alone :”
“God the Eternal!”
“He begetteth not,”
* And is not begotten ;”
‘¢ And there is none like unto Him.”
The Takbir-i-Rukw’ said whilst making an inclination of
the head and body and placing the hands upon the knees,
separating the fingers a little.
* God is Great !”
The Tasbih-i-Ruku’ said in the same posture.
“T extol the perfection of my God!”
“ I extol the perfection of my God!”
‘“T extol the perfection of my God !”
The Qiam-i-Sami Ullah, said with the body erect but
unlike the former Biām, the hands being placed on either
side. The Imam says,* aloud
‘‘God hears him who praises Him.”
The people then respond in a low voice.
| “O Lord Thou art praised.”
Takbir-i-Sijdah, said as the worshipper drops on his
knees.

“God is great !”

* When the prayers are said by a person alone he recites
both sentences.

Tasbih-i-Sijdah, recited as the worshipper puts first his
nose and then his forehead to the ground.

“ I extol the perfection of ny God the most
High !”

“ I extol the perfection of my God the most
High!”

Then raising his head and body and sinking backward
upon his heels and placing his hands upon his thighs he
says the Takbir-i-Jalsa.

* God is great !”

Then, whilst prostrating as before, he says the Takbīr-
i-Sijdah.

God is great !”

And then during the prostration the Tasbīh-i-Sijdah as
before.

I extol the perfection of my God the most
High !

I extol the perfection of my God the most
High!” |

Then, if at the close of one rikat, he repeats the Takbir
standing when it is called Takbir-i-Qiam, but at the end of
two rikats, and at the close of the prayer he repeats it
sitting, when it is called Takbir-i-Qa'tid.

“God is great !”

Here ends one rikat or form of prayer The next rikat
begins with the Fatihah or 1st chapter of the Quran.* At
the close of every two rikats he recites the Attahiyat, which is
said whilst kneeling upon the ground. His left foot bent
under him he sits upon it, and places his hands upon his
knees and says,

“ Praises are to God, and prayers, = good
works.”

“ Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with the
mercy of God and His blessing.”

Then raising the first finger of the right hand he
recites the Tashhaud. . 4

“TI testify that there is no Deity but God,
and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger
of God.” |

+ The Darīīd is said whilst in the same posture.

“ O God have mercy on Muhammad and on
his descendants, as Thou didst have mercy on
Abraham and on his descendants. Thou art
to be praised, and Thou art great. O God
bless Muhammad and his descendants as Thou
didst bless Abraham and his descendants.”

* If the worshipper is performing his devotions alone, he
repeats the Tasmiah or *‘ Bismillah” before he recites the
chapter.

+ Every two rikāts, close with the Darūd. The prayers
whether Farz, Snnnat, Nafal, or Witar close with the
“salam.”

Then the Dua—

“© God our Lord give us the blessings of
this life and also the blessings of life ever-
lasting. Save us from the torments of fire.”

He then closes with the salam.

Turning the head round to the right, he says,

‘ The peace and mercy of God be with you.”

Turning the head round to the left, he says—

“ The peace and mercy of God be with you.”

At the close of the whole set of prayers, that
is of Farz, Sunnat, Nafal, or Witar, the
worshipper raises his hands* and offers up a
'* Munajāt” or supplication. This usually
consists of prayers selected from the Quran or
Hadis. They ought to be said in Arabic,
although they are a offered up in the
vernacular.

These daily prayers are either Farz, Sunnat,
Najal, or Witar. Farz, are those number of
rikāts (or forms of prayer) enjoined in the
Qurān. „Sunnat those founded on the practice
of Muhammad. Wafal; the voluntary per-
formance of arikat which may be omitted without

* The hands are raised in order to catch a blessing from

heaven, and they are afterwards drawn over the face in order
to transfer it to every part of the body.

sin. Witar an odd number of rikāts, either
one, three, five or seven, said after the night
prayer. These divisions of prayer are entirely
distinct from each other. They each begin
afresh with the Miyyat. The worshippers may
rest for a while between them, but not converse
on worldly subjects. The Wahabis think it
correct to say the Sunnat prayers in their houses
and only the Farz prayers in the mosgue.*

In order that our readers may be able to
judge of the mechanism of this Muhammadan
performance of prayer, we annex a time-table
of the Muslim’s common prayer, showing the
number of rzkāts or forms, from which it will
be seen what is required of a pious Muham-
madan. The five times of prayer are enjoined
in the Quran, the other three periods of prayer
are voluntary.

From the following table it will be seen that
twenty-nine rikats or forms of prayer are obli-
gatory, and forty-five are voluntary acts of
devotion. |

* Mr. Palgrave in his “ Central and Eastern Arabia ”
states that he observed that the Wahābis were careless as
to the legal ablutions. Perhaps he was not aware that the

worshippers had performed the ablutions and had said the
Sunnat rikats privately before they came into the mosque

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SaOlaad ATUAL

The devotions of Islamism dre essentially
“vain repetitions ” for they must be said in the
Arabic language, and admit of no change or
variety. The effect of such a constant round
of devotional forms, which are but the service of
the lips, on the vast majority of Muhammadans
can be easily imagined. We believe that the
absence of anything like true devotion from
these services, accounts for the fact that religion
and true piety stand so far apart in the practice
of Islam.

In addition to the daily prayers, the following
are special services for special occasions:

Salāt-ul-Juma —* The Friday Prayer.” It
consists of two rikāts after the daily meridian
prayer.

Salāt-ul- Musāfir.—' Prayers for a traveller.”
Two rikāts instead of the usual number at the
meridian, afternoon, and night prayers.
Salāt-ul-Khauf.—"' The prayers of fear.”

Said in time of war. They are two rikats
recited. first by one regiment or company and
then by the other.

Salat-ul-Tardwih.— Twenty rikats recited
every evening during the Ramazan, immediately

after the fifth daily prayer.

Salāt-ul-Istikhāra. — Prayers for success
or guidance. The person who is about to
undertake any special business, performs two
rikat prayers and then goes to sleep. During
his slumbers he may expect to have * ilhām”
(lt. inspiration) as to the undertaking for which
he seeks guidance!

Upon reference to the form of prayer or rikat
which we have given, and which admits of no
change or variation whether used for the “time
of travelling,” in the “time of danger” or in.
“time of need” it will be seen that notwith-
standing the beauty of its devotional language,
it is simply a superstitious rite having nothing
in common with the Christian idea of prayer.

The Azan, is the summons to prayer pro-
claimed by the Muezzan (or crier), in small
mosques from the door or side, but in large
mosques it ought to be given from the minaret.
The following is a translation, “ God is great!
God is great! God is great! God is great! I
bear witness .that there is no God but God!
(repeated twice) I bear witness that Muhammad
is the Apostle of God! (repeated twice) Come
to prayers! Come to prayers! Come to salva-

tion! Come to salvation! God is great! There
is no other God but God!

In the early morning the following sentence
is added: “ Prayers are better than sleep.”

The Wahābi Azān is just half the length of
that commonly used. The sentences generally
said four times they say only twice, and those
repeated twice, they recite only once.

The summons to prayer was at first the
simple cry, “ Come to prayer.” In this Muham-
mad has not much claim to originality for
' Bingham tells us that a similar custom existed
at Jerusalem (vide Antiquities, Vol. IT. p.489)—
“ In the monastery of virgins which Paula, the
famous Roman lady, set up, and governed at
Jerusalem the signal was given by one going
about and singing halleluja, for that was their
- call to church, as St Jerome informs us.”

The Jgamat (lt. causing to stand) is a
recitation at the commencement of prayers in a
congregation, after the worshippers have taken
up their position. It is exactly the same as
the Azdn with the addition of the words,
“ prayers are now ready.”

XIX.—RAMAZAN.

The Ramazan is the ninth month of the
Muhammadan year which is observed as a strict
fast from the dawn of day to sunset of each day
in the month. The excellence of this month
was much extolled by Muhammad, who said
that during Ramazan “the gates .of paradise
are open and the gates of hell are shut and the
devils are chained by the leg;” and that “ only
those who observe it will be permitted to enter
by the gate of heaven called Rayan.” Those
who keep the fast “will be pardoned all their
past venial sins.”* In the month of Ramazan
Muhammad said, the Quran began to be revealed
from heaven.f j

The fast does not commence until some
Musalman is able to state that he has seen the
new moon. Ifthe sky be over-clouded and the
moon cannot be seen, the fast begins upon the
completion of thirty days from the beginning of
the previous month.

* Mishqat-ul-Musabah Book VII. Chap. 1, Section 1.
+ Quran, Surat-i-Baqr, verse 181.

The Ramazan must be kept by every Musal-
man, except the sick, the aged, and pregnant
women, or women whoare nursing their children.
Young children, who have not reached the age
of puberty, are exempt and also travellers on a
journey. In the case of a sick person or a
traveller, the month’s fast must be kept as soon
as they are able to perform it. This is called
Gazā, or expiation.

The fast is extremely rigorous and mortify-
ing, and when the Ramazan happens to fall in
the summer and the days are long, the prohibi-
tion even to drink a drop of water to slake the
thirst is a very great hardship. Muhammad
speaks of this religious exercise as “easy ”’* as
most probably it was when compared with the
ascetic spirit of the times, but Sir William
Muir} thinks Muhammad did not foresee that
when he changed the Jewish intercalary year for
the lunar year that the fast would become a
grievous burden instead of an easy one.

During the month of Ramazan twenty ad-
ditional rikats, or forms of prayer, are repeated

* Surat-i-Baqr, verse 181.
+ Life of Mahomet 111., p 49.

after the night prayer. These are called
Tarāvīh.

Devout Muslims seclude themselves for some
time in the mosque during this month and
abstain from all worldly conversation and
engage themselves in the reading of the Quran.
This seclusion is caled ' Itigāfand the observance
of at least one day and one night is expressly
enjoined. Muhammad is said to have usually
observed this custom for the last ten days of
Ramazan.

The. Laylut-ul-Qadr or the “ night of power”
is sald by Muhammad to be either on the
twenty-first, twenty-third or twenty-fifth or
twenty-seventh or twenty-ninth. The exact
date of this solemn night has not been dis-
covered by any but the’ Prophet himself and
some of the Companions, although the learned
doctors believe it to be on the twenty-seventh.
Of this night Muhammad ayi in the Qurān
(Surat-al- Qadr )

‘Verily we have caused it (the Quran) to
descend on the night of power.

‘And who shall teach thee what the night of
power is ?

‘The night of power excelleth a thousand
nights : |
* Therein descend the angels and the spirit
by permission

‘Of their Lord in every muus :

‘And all is peace till the breaking of the
morn.’

By these verses commentators* understand
that on this night the Quran came down entire
in one volume to the lowest heaven from
whence it was revealed by Gabriel in portions
as the occasion required. The excellence of ©
this night are said to be innumerable, and it is
believed that during it the whole animal and
vegetable kingdom bow in humble adoration to
the Almighty, and the waters of the sea become
sweet in a moment of time! This night is
frequently confounded} with the Shab Barat,
but even the Qurān itself does not appear to be
quite clear on the subject, for in the Surat-i-
Dukhān we read: “ By this clear Book. See
on a blessed night have we sent it down, for we

ad Tafsiri i-Hoseini.
+ By Lane in his “ Egyptians,” and by other writers.

would warn mankind, on the night wherein all
things are disposed in wisdom.” In which it
appears that the blessed night or the Laylut-ul-
Mubarak is both the night of record and the
night upon which the Quran came down from
heaven, although the one is supposed to be the
twenty-seventh day of Ramazan and the other
the fifteenth of Shabān.

M. Geiger identifies the Ramazan with the
fast of the tenth (Leviticus xxii. 27); it is,
however, far more likely that the feast of the -
Tenth is identical with the ’Id-i-Ashura, not
only because the Hebrew ' Asūr, ten, is retained
in the title of that Muhammadan fast, but also
because there is a Jewish tradition, ' (vide
Adam Clark), that creation began upon the
Jewish fast of the tenth, which coincides with
the Muhammadan day ’Ashura being regarded
as the day of Creation. Moreover, the Jewish
’Asur and the Muslim ’Ashura are both fasts
and days of affliction. It is far more probable
that Muhammad got his idea of a thirty days’
fast from the Christian Lent. The observance of
Lent in the Eastern Church was exceedingly
strict both with regard to the nights as well as

the days of that season of abstinence, but
Muhammad entirely relaxed the rules with
regard to the night, and from sunset till the
dawn of day the Muslim is permitted to indulge
in any lawful pleasures and to feast with his
friends, consequently large evening dinner
parties are usual in the nights of the Ramazan
amongst the better classes. This would be
what Muhammad meant when he said, “ God
would make the fast an ease and not a diffi-
culty,” for notwithstanding its rigour in the day
time it must be an easier observance than the
strict fast observed during Lent by the Eastern
Christians of Muhammad’s day.

XX.—ZAKAT.

Zikat (lit. purification). The legal alms or
poor rate, is the fourth of the five foundations
of Islām. Zakat should be given annually of
five descriptions of property, provided they
have been in possession a whole year, namely
money, cattle, grain, fruit and merchandise.

There are several minor differences amongst
6

the various sects as to the precise explanation
of the law with reference to these legal alms,
but the following are the general rules observed
by Sunni Musulmans.

(1). Money. If he is a Sahib i Nissāb (?.e.
one who has had forty rupees in his possession
for a year) he must give alms at the rate of
one rupee in every forty, or two and a half
per cent.

(2). Cattle. Should his property consist of
. sheep or goats, he is not obliged to give alms
until they amount to forty in number. He
must then give one for one hundred and twenty,
and two for the next eighty and then one for
every hundred afterwards. For camels the
following is the rate—from 5 to 25, one sheep
or goat; from 26 to 85, one yearling female
camel; from 36 to 45, one two-year old female
camel; from 46 to 60, one three-year old female
camel; from 61 to 75, one four-year old female
camel; from 76 to 90, two two-year old
female camels: from 91 to 120, two three-year
old female camels and from 121 and upwards
either; a two-year old female camel for every
forty or a three-year old female camel for every
fifty. Í

For cows or bulls: if 30 cows, a one-year old
female calf; if 40, a two-year old female calf,
and so on, a one-year old female calf for every
10. But should he possess one thousand cows,
as many cows are to be given as will by their
combined ages make up one hundred years.
~ Alms for buffaloes are the same as for sheep.

For horses, either the same rate as for camels,
or two rupees eight annas for every horse
whose value exceeds one hundred rupees.
Animals used for riding and beasts of burden
are exempt. .

(8). Fruits. For fruits watered by rain a
tenth is given, but if irrigated, then a twentieth

(4)..Grain. The same rate as for fruits.

(5). Merchandise. For the capital, as well
as for the profits Zakāt is given at the rate ofone
in forty, provided the owner be a Sahib i nissab.
For gold bullion, half a misgal (=672 grains)
is given for every 20 misgāl weight. For
silver bullion at the rate of 24 per cent. For
whatever is found in mines if over 240 dirrums
in weight (= 21lbs. 20z. 2dr.) a fifth is reguired ;
and if the money be laid out in merchandise,
alms are to be given on the profits.

' Wood and pearls are exempt and also cloth-
ing, but not jewels.
The following are the classes of persons on

' whom it 1s lawful to bestow the Zakat.

1. Such pilgrims to Mecca as have not the
means of defraying the expenses of the journey.

2. Religious mendicants.

3. Debtors who cannot discharge their debts:

4. Beggars.

5. Poor travellers.

6. Proselytes to Muhammadanism.

The Zakat or legal alms must be distin-
guished from the Sadaga or offerings, which is
a term more especially applied to the offerings
-on the’Jd ul fitar (q.v.) although it is used for
almsgiving in general.

As far as we have been able to ascertain, it
does not appear that the Muhammadans of the
present day are very regular in the payment of
the Zakat. It ought to be given on the
termination of a year’s possession, and in
countries under Muhammadan rule it is exacted
by Government.

It is somewhat remarkable that Muhammad
in his institution of legal almsgiving did not

more closely copy the Jewish law in the giving
of the “tenths,” more particularly as the
number ten appears to have been so frequently
preferred as a number of selection in the cases
of offerings in both sacred and secular history.
The Muhammadan Zakat however differs very
materially from the Jewish Tithe, for the latter
was given to the Levites of the Temple, and
employed by them for their own support and
for that of the priests, as well as for festival
purposes. The Muhammadan priesthood are
supported by grants of land,* and offerings at
the time of harvest, and are not permitted to
take any of the Zakāt. Moreover, the descen-
dants of the “Prophet” are not allowed to
accept of either Zakat or Sadaga because “they
_are of the Prophet’s own blood and not to be
included in the indigent.”

Whatever may be the weak points in Muham-
madanism, all candid observers acquainted with
the condition of Muhammadan nations must
admit that its provision for the poor is highly
commendable. As we have journeyed from

* Land or any property appropriated for religious or
charitable purposes is called wagaf.

village to village amongst the Afghans we have
been frequently struck with the absence of great
poverty, and even in our large cities where
Muhammadan beggars are numerous, it must
be remembered that they are either religious
mendicants or professional beggars, and for
the most part quite unworthy of charitable
relief.

XXI.—HAJJ OR PILGRIMAGE.

Hay or Pilgrimage to Mecca, is the fifth of
the five foundations of Islam. It is said, by
Muhammad, to be of divine institution, and has
the authority of the Quran for its observance.
Its performance is incumbent upon those men
and women who have sufficient means to meet
the expenses of the journey, and to maintain
their families at home during their absence.

The ceremonies observed on this occasion
are so ridiculous that they do more to reveal
the imposture of Muhammad than any other
part of his system. They are even by the con-
fession of Muhammadans themselves, the relicts

of the idolatrous superstitions of ancient Arabia,
and they are either evidences of the dark and
superstitious character of Muhammad’s mind,
or, what is perhaps even more probable, they
show how far the“ Prophet” found it suit his pur-
pose to compromise with the heathen Arabians
of his day. The merits of the pilgrimage are so
great, that every step taken in the direction ofthe
Kaaba blots out a sin, and he who dies on his
way to Mecca is enrolled on the list of martyrs.
However ingeniously the apologists of Islam-
ism may offer excuses for some of the weak
points of Muhammad’s religious system, and
endeavour to shield the “‘ Prophet of Arabia”
from the grave and solemn charge of having
“forged the name of God,” the pilgrimage to
Mecca can admit of no satisfactory solution.
In its institution the false prophet layeth open
_ his own folly, for in the ridiculous ceremonies of
the Hajj, we see the law-giver whose professed
mission it was to uproot the idolatry of Arabia,
_ giving one of its superstitious customs the
authority of a divine enactment. The pilgrim-
age to Mecca is one of the numerous inconsis-
tencies of Muhammad’s pretended revelation.

The following is the orthodox way of per-
forming the pilgrimage founded upon the
example of the *' Prophet” himself.

Upon the pilgrim’s arrival at the last stage*
near Mecca, he bathes himself, and performs two
rakat prayers, and then divesting himself of his
clothes, he assumes the pilgrim’s sacred robe
which is called Lhram. This garment consists
of two seamless wrappers, one being wrapped
round the waist and the other thrown loosely
over the shoulder, the head being left uncovered.
Sandals of wood may also be worn. After he
has assumed the pilgrim’s garb he must not
anoint his head, shave any part of his body,
pare his nails, nor wear any other garment than
_ the Lhram. Immediately on his arrival at
Mecca he performs the legal ablutions and pro-
ceeds to the Musjid ul harām, or Sacred Mosque,
and kisses the Hajr ul aswad or the black-stone,
and then encompasses the Kaabaf seven times.

* These are six in number and are situated about five
or six miles from Mecca in different directions. They are
. called Migqat..

+ Some confusion exists in the minds of English Authors
with regard to the word Kaaba. The Temple or Mosque
at Mecca is called Musjid ul, Harām (the sacred mosque)

This act, which is called Tawaf, is performed
by commencing on the right and leaving the
Kaaba on the left. The circuits are made thrice
with a quick step or run, and four times at a
slow pace. He then proceeds to the Qadam i
Ibrahim (the foot marks of the prophet
Abraham) and performs two rikat prayers, after
which he returns to the black-stone and kisses
it. He then goes to the gate of the temple
leading to mount Safa and from it ascends the
hill and runs from the summit of mount Safa
to that of mount Marwah seven times! On
the top of the hill he remains for a few moments
and raising his hands heavenwards supplicates
the Almighty. |

On the eighth day which is called Tarwiah,
he unites with his fellow pilgrims at Mina in the
usual services of the Muslim ritual and stays
the night.

After morning prayer he rushes to mount
’Arifat, where having said two rikat prayers with
or Bait-ullah (the house of God). The Kaaba (lit. a cube)
is the square stone building in the centre containing the
black-stone. And the Hajr ul aswad is the black-stone

itself, which Muslims say was originally white, but became
black by reason of men’s sins.

the Imam and heard the Khutbah, (or oration)
he remains untilsun-set. He then proceeds to
Muzdalifah and having said the sun-set and
evening prayers he stays the night at that
place.

The next morning which is the Id-u-zoha or
great feast he comes to three places in Mina,
marked by three pillars called Jamra. At
each of these pillars he picks up seven small
stones or pebbles, and having said some par-
ticular prayer over each pebble and blown upon
it, he throws it at one of the pillars, this cere-

mony is called Rummi ul Jammār or the
throwing of pebbles. —

He then proceeds to the place of sacrifice at
Mina, and performs the usual sacrifice of the
'Id-u-zoha after this sacrifice he gets himself
_ shaved, and his nails pared. The pilgrim garb
is then removed and the pilgrimage is. ended,
although he should rest at Mecca the three
following days which are called the Ayyam ul
Tashrīg, or the days of drying up the blood of
the sacrifice. These are three days of well
earned rest after the vigorous peripatetic
performances of the last four days.

The pilgrimage must be performed on these
days of the month of Zul Hiya, namely from
the seventh to the tenth; a visit to Mecca at
any other time has not the merit of a pilgrimage.

Before he leaves Mecca the pilgrim should
once more perform the circuits round the Kaaba
and throw stones at the sacred pillars, each
seven times.

He then proceeds to Medina and makes his
salutations at the Shrine of Muhammad. The
Wahābis do not perform the last act as it is
contrary to their principles to visit shrines.

The Musulmān who has performed the pil-
grimage is called Hā. |

The Kaaba is also called the Qibla, or the
direction to which Muslims are to pray.
Mosques are therefore always erected Qibla-
wards. At'the commencement of Islamism the
Qibla was Jerusalem, but when Muhammad
failed to conciliate the Jews to his prophetic
pretensions he made the Kaaba the Qibla or the
direction in which to pray.

The pilgrimage cannot be performed by
proxy, as some English authors have stated,
although it is considered a meritorious act to

pay the expenses of one who cannot afford to
perform it. But if a Muhammadan on his
death-bed bequeath a sum of money to be paid
to acertain person to perform the pilgrimage, it
is considered to satisfy the claims of the Muslim
law. Ifa Muslim have the means of perform-
ing the pilgrimage and omit to do so, its omis-
sion is equal to a kabira or mortal sin.

XXII.—THE LAW.

Muhammadan law consists of two divisions.
kawā and Nārawā, i.e., Things Lawful and
Things Unlawful.

(a)—That which is lawful is divided into
five classes.—

1. Farz.—That which has been enjoined
in the Quran.

2. Wāpb.—That of which there is some
doubt as to its divine institution.

3. Sunnat.—The example of Muhammad,
which consists of three kinds. —

Sunnat-i-F'ali.—That ‘which Muhammad
himself did.

Sunnat-i-Qawi.—That which Muhammad
said should be practised.

Sunnat-i-Taqriri.—That which was done
in the presence of Muhammad and which he did
not forbid.

4, Mustahib.—That which Muhammad some-
times did and sometimes omitted.

5. Muhbah.—That which may be left unper-
formed without any fear of divine punishment.

(b)—Things unlawful are of three classes.—

1, Hardm.—That which is distinctly for-
bidden in the Quran and Hadis.

2. Makruh.—That of which there is some
doubt as to its unlawfulness, but which is
generally held to be unclean or unlawful.

. 8. Mufsid.—That whieh is corrupting and
pernicious. .

The divisions of lawful and unlawful do not
merely apply to food, but also to ablutions and
other customs and precepts.

Punishment is'divided into three classes—
Hadd, T”azīr, and Qisas.

1. Hadd is that punishment which is said
to have been ordained of God in the Quran,
and which must be inflicted. The following

_ belong to this class: Adultery, for which the
adulterer is stoned. Fornication, for which
one hundred stripes are inflicted. Drunken-
ness, for which there are eighty stripes. The
slander of a married person, that is, bringing a
false charge of adultery against’ a married
person, for which the offender must receive
eighty lashes. This punishment is said to
have been instituted by God when Ayesha,
the favourite wife of “the Prophet,’ was
falsely charged with adultery! Apostacy,
for which the Murtidd or Apostate is killed by
stoning, unless he repent of his error within
three days.*

2. Z’azir is that punishment which is said
to have been ordained of God, but of which
there are not special injunctions. The exact
punishment being left to the discretion of the
Qazi, or judge. !

3. Qisds (lit. retaliation) is that punishment
which can be remitted by the person offended
against upon the payment of a fine or compen-

* When a Murtidd or Apostate from Islamism has been
killed according to the law, or has left the country, his
property goes to those of his heirs who still remain Mus-
sulmans (Vide the Al Sirajiyah).

sation. The punishment for murder is of this
class. The next akin to the murdered person
can either take the life of his kinsman’s mur-
derer, or accept a money compensation. There
is also retaliation in case of wounds. The
lex talionis of Moses, “eye for eye, tooth for
tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burning for
burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe,”
(wide Exodus xxi. 24). But in allowing a
money compensation for murder, Muhammad
departed from the Jewish code.

XXIII.—SIN.
The Muhammadan doctors divide sins into

two classes, very much as the Roman Catholic
divines do. The usual Roman designation
being that of mortal and venial sin, whilst
Muhammadans use the expressions Kabīra and
Saghīra, “ Great and Little.” Kabira are those
great sins, of which if a Musulman do not
repent, he will,go to the purgatorial hell
reserved for sinful Muslims. The divines of
Islam are not agreed amongst themselves as to

the exact number of Kabira sins, but they are
generally considered to be seventeen.

1. Kufr or infidelity.

2. Constantly committing Saghira or little
sins.

3. Despairing of the mercy of God.

4, Considering one’s self safe from the wrath
of God. i

5. False witness.

6. Abuse of a Musulman.

7. Taking a false oath.

8. Magic.

9. Drinking wine.

10. Appropriation of the property of or-
phans. |

11. Usury.

12. Adultery.

13. Unnatural crimes.

14. Theft.

15. Murder.

16. Fleeing in battle before the face of an
infidel.

17. Disobedience to parents.

XXIV.—FARZ KAFAE.

Farz Kafāe are those commands which are
farz (imperative), but which, if one person in
eight or ten perform, it is equivalent to all
having performed it.

1. To return a salutation.

2. To visit the sick and inquire after their
welfare.

3. To follow a bier on foot to the grave.

4. To accept an invitation.

5. To reply to a sneeze, e.g., if a person
sneeze and say immediately afterwards “ God
be praised ” (Alhamd ul lillah), it is incumbent
upon at least one of the party to exclaim “ God
have mercy on you.” (Yar hamak Allah).*

XXV.—FITRAT.

Fitrat (lit. nature) is said to be certain
ancient practices of the prophets before the

* There is an interesting chapter on the custom of
saluting after sneezing in Isaac D’Israeli’s ‘‘ Curiosities of
Literature,” from which it appears that it is almost universal
amongst nations.

time of Muhammad, which have not been for-
bidden by him.. |

In the Hadis “ Muslim,” the customs of
fitrat are said to be ten in number.

1. The clipping of the mustachios, so that
they do not enter the mouth. |

2. Not cutting or shaving the beard.

3. Cleaning the teeth (i.e. miswak).

4. Cleansing the nostrils with water at the
usual ablutions. - :

5. Cutting the nails.

6. Cleaning the finger joints.

7. Pulling out the hairs under the arms. |

8. * * +*+ + ë >

g * * * * * .

10. Cleansing the mouth with water at the
time of ablution. |

XXVI.—LAWFUL FOOD.

No animal] is lawful food unlessīt be slaugh-
tered according to the Muhammadan law,
namely, by drawing the knife across the throat
and cutting the windpipe, the carotid arteries
and the gullet, repeating at the same time the

„words “ Bismillah Alaho Akbar,” i.e., “ In the
name of the great God.” A clean animal, so
slaughtered, becomes lawful food for Muslims,
whether slaughtered by Jews,. Christians, or
Muhammadans, but it is a disputed question
whether animals so killed by idolaters can be
lawfully eaten.

In the “ Sharia Waqaia” it is said that the
following creatures are lawful (halal) :-—

1. Those animals that are cloven-footed and
chew the cud and are not beasts of prey.

2. Birds that do not seize their prey with
their claws or wound them with their bills,
but pick up food with their bills.

3. Fish that have scales.

4, Locusts.

Some commentators say that the horse is
lawful; but itis generally held to be “ makruh.”

Fish found dead in the water is unlawful,
but if it be taken out and die afterwards it is
lawful. |

Alligators, turtles, crabs, snakes, frogs, &c.,
are unlawful. Wine is expressly forbidden in
the Qurān; and in the judgment of the learned,
this prohibition extends to whatever has a

100

tendency to intoxicate, such as opium,
bhang, chars* and tobacco. The,Akhund of
Swatf has issued several “ fatwahs” prohibiting
the use of tobacco, but the chilam (or pipe)
having become a national institution, no notice
has been taken of the inhibition. The Wahabis
do not permit its use. In Trans-Indus ter-
ritory the hukka, or chilam, is never allowed in
a mosque. |

From what we have written it will be seen
that a Muslim can have no religious scruples
to eat with a Christian as long as the food eaten
is of a lawful kind. Syud Ahmad Khan
Bahadur, c.s.1., has written a treatise prov-
ing that Muhammadans can eat with the
Ahi i Kitab, namely, Jews or Christians. The
Muhammadans of India whilst they will eat
food cooked by idolatrous Hindus, refuse to
touch that cooked either by Native or European
Christians; and they often : refuse to allow
Christians to draw water from the public wells,

* Bhang and Chars are intoxicating preparations of hemp.

+ The Akhund of Swat is a great religious leader amongst
the Muhammadans of North India and Central Asia. He

resides at Seydū, in Swat, about twenty miles beyond the
British Frontier.

101

although Hindus are permitted to do so. Such
objections arise solely from jealousy of race, and
an unfriendly feeling towards the ruling power.
In Afghanistan and Persia no such objections
exist; and no doubt much evil has been caused
by Government allowing Hindustani Musul-
mans to create a religious custom which has no
foundation whatever, except that of national
hatred to their English conquerors.

XXVII—THE SALUTATIONS.

The usual Muhammadan salutation is “ us
salim u ’alekam ” 7.¢e., “The peace of God be
with you.”

When a person makes a “salam” and any of
the assembly rise and return it, it 1s considered
sufficient for the whole company.

The lesser number should always be the first
to salute the greater, he who rides should
salute him who walks; he who walks, him who
stands; the stander, the sitter, &c. A man should
not salute a woman on the road, and it is con-
sidered very disrespectful to salute with the left
hand, that hand being used for legal ablutions.

The ordinary salute is made by raising the

102

right hand either to the breast or to. the
forehead.

In Central Asia the salutation is generally
given without any motion of the hand or body.

Pupils salute their masters by kissing the
hand or sleeve, which is the usual salutation
made to men of eminent piety.

Homage is paid by kissing the feet of the
~ ruler, or by kissing the ground or carpet.

In Afghanistan conquered people pay homage
by casting their turbans at the feet of the con-
queror, and the heads of tribes often lessen the
size of their turbans before appearing in the
presence of their rulers.

XXVIII..THE MUHAMMADAN
CLERGY.

The Muslims have no hereditary priestly
caste as the Hindus, nor have they a distinct
order of clergy exactly corresponding with
those of the Christian Church. But still there
is a powerful .hierarchy possessed of great
political and religious influence which resembles
the Jewish Scribes and' Lawyers.

103

In countries under Muhammadan rule the
religious dignitaries are appointed by the king,
who is properly the highest spiritual authority
in the kingdom. The Shekh-ul-Islām at
Constantinople unites in himself the functions
of the Primate and Lord Chancellor.

The following are the chief religious func-
tionaries in a state governed according to
Muhammadan law.

Qdzi.—The minister of justice who passes
sentence in all cases of law; religious, moral,
civil, or criminal.

Mufti.—The law officer, who expounds the
law and in difficult cases supplies the Qazi
with “ fatwahs” or decisions.

There are still persons in India bearing the
titles of Qazi and Mu/fti, but the offices have
ceased to exist under British Government.
The Indian law, however, permits Civil cases
being decided by Muhammadan divines, if both
- parties consent to the arrangement. |

Imam.—The Arabic, word Imam is said by
Sale to answer to the Latin antistes, the pre-
sident of the temple. It is also used for the
four successors of Muhammad, the four great

104

doctors of the four orthodox sects, the twelve
great leaders of the Shiahs, and for any great
religious leader. It is, however, commonly
used for the person who leads the daily prayer
and is in receipt of the revenues of the mosque.

The titles of Qazi, Mufti, and Imam may be
said to embrace the various appointments held
‘by Muhammadan divines, but there are also
numerous titles to denote doctors of Science
„and Divinity.

Tabīb. A doctor of medicine.

Hakim. A doctor of philosophy, used also
for a doctor of medicine.

Muhaggig. A very learned doctor in one or
two sciences.

Moulvie, also Mullā. A doctor of divinity,
used for any person who has been educated in
the Muhammadan religion, and assumes the
office of teacher.

Fakīh. A doctor of law.

Madarris. An academical doctor, i.e., one
educated in some school of reputation.

Doctors of Divinity are of three grades. -

Moulvie, Alama, and Mujtahid. The title of
Mujtahid is held by very few. It is conferred

105
either by Muhammadan rulers or by colleges of
high reputation.

In addition to these titles which express the
degree of learning there are others which
denote the piety and sanctity of the indi-
vidual. Pir and Walt are the common titles,
but the following express certain degrees of
reputed sanctity :—

’Abid one constantly aie in the worship
of God.

Zahid, one who leai a life of asceticism.
The title of Fagir does not always denote one
who has renounced the possessions of the world,
but is applied to any one of a humble spirit,
one poor in the sight of God, rather than in
need of worldly assistance.

Ghaus, the highest order of sanctity. Ac-
cording to vulgar tradition a Ghaus is a saint
whose ardour of devotion is such, that in the
act of worship his head and limbs fall asunder!

There are four titles of respect which scarcely
belong to either the religious or the learned
class, but are of more general use :—

Shekh, an appellation which literally signifies
an elder or aged person. It is a common title

of respect, and is almost synonymous with our

106

English “ Mister.” In Egypt and Arabia it ©
appears to be used for the Hindustani and
Persian Khan, or chief.

Miyan (Lit. a master or friend) generally
used for the descendants of celebrated saints,
but also as a title of respect.

Syud (Lit. Lord). For the descendants of
Muhammad from his daughter Fatimah and
her husband Ali. The word Syud is often
used as part of a name, without reference to
family descent from the Prophet; as Syud
- Ahmad, Syud Shah &c.

Mir, also used for Syuds, but not exclu-
sively.

XXIX.—THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

Muhammadan Theological Literature is very
extensive; and in consequence of the cheapness
of lithographic printing it is daily i eee
The following are its chief divisions :—

(1) Hadis ; or, accounts of the precepts and
practice of Muhammad. These have already
been described in Note V.

(2) Usul (Lit. Roots).—Treatises on :the
rules and principles of the foundations of
-Muhammadan law—namely, of the exegesis of

107

the Quran and Hadis and the principles of Ijma’
and Qiis. The most popular works on this
subject are the Mznār and the Talwv” Tauzia’.

(3) Figah.—Works on Muhammadan Law,
by which must be understood both religious and
civil; for Muhammadanism does not recognize
_ any division of the civil from the religious.

The most celebrated work on Sunni Law is
the Hīdāya, a translation of which was made
into English by Colonel Charles Hamilton, A.D.,
1791. Also the Sharah Waqia, by Abdul Haqq,
in Persian.

(4) Tajfsīr.—Commentaries on the Quran.
These are very numerous and contain very
many Jewish traditions of the most worthless
character. The latest and most learned Com-
_mentator is said to be Shah Wali Ullah of
Delhi, but the most popular commentaries
amongst the Muhammadans of India are
Beizāwī, Madārik, and Jalālain, in Arabic, and
Tafsīr-i- Hosainī in Persian.

(5) Seyar.—The History of Muhammad and
his successors. This branch of Muhammadan
Literature, Syud Ahmad Khan says, is “the

one which requires the most emendation.”

108

The most celebrated of these works are those
by Ibn-i Ishaq, Ibn-i-Hishim, Tibari, and Ibn-
i-Sad, the Secretary of Wagqidi; whilst the
most popular are Rawzat-ul-Ahbab and Madary-
u-Nabūvwat.

The text of a book is'called Matan, the mar-
ginal notes Hdashiyah, and its commentary or
explanation Sharh.*

XXX.—ID-UL-FITR.

'1d-ul-Fitr, (lit. the feast of breaking the
fast) is called also the feast of Ramazān, the
feast of alms, and the minor festival. It is held
on the first day of the month of Shawwal,t
which is the day after the close of the Ramazan
fast. On this day, before going to the place of ©
prayer, the Sadaga, or propitiatory offerings are
made to the poor in the name of God. The
offerings having been made, the people assemble

* In addition to his theological studies the Student is in-
structed in Mantig (logic) Sarf (inflexion) and Nahw (Syntax),

+ The twelve months of the Muhammadan year are—
Muharram, Safar, Rabiya Awwal, Rabiya Akhir, Jamad

Awwal, Jamad Akhir, Rajib, Shaban, Ramazan, Shawwal,
Dulgada, and Zul Hajja.

109

either in the Jama’ Musjid (2.¢., the principal
Mosque) or proceed to the ’Idgah which is a
special place for worship on festivals. The
worship commences with two rikāt prayers,
after which the Imam takes his place on the
second step of the mimbar (pulpit) and recites
the Khutba, concluding with a prayer for the.
king. After this is ended, he offers up a
munajat or supplication for the people, for the
remission of sins, the safety of pilgrims, the re-
covery of the sick, increase of rain, abundance of
corn, preservation from misfortune, and freedom.
from debt, He then descends to the ground, and
makes further supplication for the people, the
congregation saying Amin at the end of each
supplication. At the close of the service the
members of the congregation salute and embrace.
each other, and offer mutual congratulations,
and then return to their homes, and spend the
rest of the day in feasting and merriment.

XAXXI.—'ID-U-ZOHA.

'1d-u-Zohā, or the feast of sacrifice, is called
also Bagr-i-'īd (or the cow festival), the great

110

feast, and also Qurbani ’Id,* and is held on the
tenth of them onth Zul Hajja. This festival has
become part of the Meccan pilgrimage, of which
it is the concluding scene, although it appears
that Muhammad at first intended to conform to
the custom of the Jews in observing the great.
day of atonement, but when he failed to main-
tain a friendly footing with the Jews he merged
the rite into the Meccan pilgrimage. This
feast, however, is the great Muhammadan
festival which is observed wherever Islamism
exists, and it is a notable fact that whilst
Muhammad professed to abrogate the Jewish
ritual and also ignored entirely the doctrine of
the atonement as taught in the New Testament,
denying even-the very fact of our Saviour's

crucifixion, that he made the “day of sacrifici”

the great central festival of his religion.

There is a very remarkable Hadis, related
by Ayesha, who states, that Muhammad said,
= “Man hath not done anything on the 'Id-u-

Zohā, more pleasing to God than spilling blood ;
I mean sacrifice; for verily the animal sacrificed
will come, on the day of resurrection, with its

* In Turkey it is called Qurban Bayram.

= HI

horns, its hair, and its hoofs, and will make the
scales of his (good) actions heavy. Verily its
blood reacheth the acceptance of God, before it
falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful
in it.”* Muhammad has thus become unwill-
ingly a witness to the grand doctrine of the Chris-
tian faith that “ without shedding of blood there
is no remission.” The animal sacrificed must be
without blemish and of full age, but it may be
either a goat, a sheep, a cow or a camel. |

According to the Commentator Jellaludin
Syūty, the sacrifice was instituted in com-
memoration of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice
his son Ismail! The following is the account
given by Muhammadan writers. ‘ When Ibra-
him (the peace of God be on him) founded
Mecca, the Lord. desired him to prepare a feast
for Him. Upon Ibrahim’s (the friend of God)
requesting to know what He would have on the
occasion, the Lord replied, ‘Offer up thy son
Ismail.’ Agreeably to God’s command he took
Ismail to the Kaaba to sacrifice him, and having
laid him down, he made several ineffectual
strokes on his throat with a knife, on which

* Mishqat-ul-Masabah, Book iv., Chap. 42, Section 2.

112

Ismail observed, ‘ Your eyes being uncovered,
it is through pity and compassion for me you
allow the knife to miss: it would be better if
you blindfolded yourself with the end of your .
turban and then sacrificed me.’ Abraham acted
upon his son’s suggestion and having repeated
the words ‘ bismillah allah ho akbar’ (2.e., ‘in
the name of the great God,’) he drew the knife
across his son’s neck. In the meanwhile, how-
ever, Gabriel had substituted a broad-tailed
_ sheep for the youth Ismail, and Ibrahim un-
folding his eyes observed, to his surprise, the
sheep slain, and his son standing behind him.”
The account is a ridiculous parody upon the
words of the inspired prophet Moses. In the
Quran the name of the son is not given,
although commentators state, that the pro-
phet said, that he was a descendant of the
son of Abraham who was offered in sac-
rifice.* The sacrifice, as it is now performed
on the ’Id-u-Zoha, is as follows:—The people
assemble for prayer at the ’"Jdgah as on the
’Id-ul-Fitr ; after prayers the people return to

* The name of thé son is not given in the Quran, but it
is inthe Hadis Sahih Bokhari.

113

their houses. The head of the family then
takes a sheep (or a cow or camel) to the
entrance of his house and sacrifices it, by
repeating the words, “in the name of the great
God,” and cutting its throat. The flesh of the
animal is then divided, two-thirds being kept
by the family, and one-third being given to the
poor in the name of God.

XXXII.—MUHARRAM AND ASHURA.

The Muharram (lit., that which is sacred)
commences on the first of the month of that
"name and is continued for ten days. The
tenth day being called Ashura. They are days of
. matam or lamentation in commemoration of the
martyrdom of Ali and of Hassan and Hosein,*
as observed by the Shiahs; but the day Ashura
(the tenth) is also held sacred by the Sunnis
the observance of the month having been en-
* The Khalifa Ali was assassinated in the mosque of Cufa,
A.D. 660. Hassan was poisoned by his wife at the instiga-
tion of Yazid. Hosein was slain with three and thirty

strokes of lances and swords, a.p.680. The story of Hosein
is one of the most touching pages of Muslim history.

114

joined by Muhammad on account of its having
been the month of creation. —

The ceremonies of the Muharram differ much
in different places, but the following are the
main features of the festival as observed by the
Shiahs. A place is prepared which is called
the Ashūr-khāna (the ten day house) or [mam- —
Bara (the Imam place) in the centre of which
is dug a pit in which fires are kindled, and at
night the people, young and old, fence across
the fire with ‘sticks and swords, and whilst
dancing round it, call out, “Oh Ali! noble
Hassan! noble Hosein! bridegroom! alas
friend! stay! stay! &c. The cry being re-
peated in the most excited manner hundreds of
times until the whole assembly has reached the
highest pitch of excitement. They then form
themselves in circles and beat themselves with `
chains in the most frantic manner. The women
repeat a funeral eulogium, and the Moulvies
the Rowzat-ul-Shahādat or the Book of Martyrs.

On the seventh day there are representations
of the marriage ceremony of Qasim and of the
martyrdom of Hosein, and on the eighth day a
lance or spear is carried about the city to

115

represent Hosein’s head which was carried on
the point of a javelin by order of Yazid. In
addition to these representations there are the
Tazīas, Tābūts, or biers, of the tombs of Hassan
and Hosein. A horse-shoe in representation
of Hosein’s swift horse, and the standards
of Hassan, Hosein and Qasim, and other Muslim
celebrities.

The Sunni Muhammadans do not usually
take part in these ceremonies, but observe the
tenth day, Ashura, being the day on which God
is said to have created Adam and Eve, heaven,
hell, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, life and
death.

Muhammad commanded his followers to
observe the Ashura by bathing, wearing new
clothes, applying surma* to the eyes, fasting,
prayers, making peace with one’s enemies, asso-
ciating with religious persons, relieving orphans,
and giving of alms.

The fast of Ashura is a Sunnat fast, i.e., not
founded upon an injunction ‘in the Quran, but
upon the example of Muhammad. |

* Surma is antimony or galena ground to a fine powder
and applied to the eyelids to improve the brightness of the
eyes.

116

XXXIII—SHAB BARAT.

Shab Barat, the “night of record,” is
observed on the fifteenth day of the month,
Shabān. It is the “Guy Fawkes Day” of
India, being the night for display of fireworks.

On this night, Muhammad said, God registers
annually all the actions of mankind which they
are to perform during the year, and that all the
children of men, who are to be born and to die
in the year, are recorded. Muhammad enjoined
his followers to keep awake the whole night, to
repeat one hundred rikdt prayers, and to fast
the next day, but there are generally great
rejoicings instead of a fast, and large sums of
money are spent in fireworks. The Shab
Barat must not be confounded with the
Lylat-ul-Qadr (night of power) mentioned in
the Quran, which is the twenty-seventh night
of the Ramazān. The Shab Barat, however,
is frequently called Shab Qadr, or the night of
power, by the common people.

Shab Barat and *Id-u-Zohā are the only two
festivals which have Arfa or vigils.

117

XXXIV.—AKHIRI CHAHAR SHAMBA.

Akhiri Chahār Shamba is the last Wednesday
of the month of Safar, and ïs a feast held in
commemoration of Muhammad’s having ex-
perienced some mitigation of his last illness and
having bathed. It was the last time he per- `
formed the legal bathing, for he died on the |
twelfth day of the next month. In some parts
of Islamism if is customary, in the early morn-
ing of this day, to write seven verses of the
Quran, known as the Seven Salāms, and then
wash off the ink and drink it as a charm
against evil.

The Akhiri Chahar Shamba is not observed
by the Wahabis, not being enjoined in the
Quran and Hadis. |

XXXV.—BARA WAFAT.

The Bāra Wafāt (t.e, Bāra twelve and
Wafat death) is the twelfth day of the month,
- Rabbi-ul-Awwal. It is observed in commemo-
ration of Muhammad’s death.

On this day Fatihas, (1.¢., the first chapter
of the Quran) are said for Muhammad, and

118 .

both in private houses and in the mosgues the
learned recite portions of the tradītions and
other works in praise of the excellences of
Muhammad. These customs are usually ob-
served for the whole twelve days, although the
twelfth day is held most sacred.

The Wahabis do not observe the Bāra
Wafāt, as its observance is not enjoined in the
Quran or Hadis. The only festivals observed
by this sect are the ’Id-i-Fitr, ’Id-i-Zoha,
Ashura,and Shab Barat. |

XXXVI—NIKAH OR MARRIAGE.

Nikah is the celebration of the marriage
contract as distinguished from the festive
rejoicings which usually accompany it. The
latter being called Shadi in Persian and Urdu,
and ’Urs in Arabic.

Marriage, according to Muhammadan law, is
simply a civil contract and its validity does not
depend upon any religious ceremony.

The legality of marriage depends upon the
consent of the parties, which is called Jjãb and
Qabil viz., declaration and acceptance; the
presence of two male witnesses, or one male

119

and two females;* anda dower of not less than
ten dirhems to be settled upon the woman.
The omission of the settlement does not, how-
ever, invalidate the contract, for under any,
circumstances the woman becomes entitled to
her dower of ten dirhems or more. Muham-
madans are permitted by the Quran (vide
Surat i nisa) to marry four free women and to
have as many female slaves as he may possess.
Marriages for a limited period were sanctioned
by “the Prophet,” but this law is said to have -
been abrogated, although it is allowed by the
Shiahs even in the present day. These tem-
porary marriages are called Muta’h, and are
undoubtedly the greatest blot in Muhammad’s
moral legislation.

Marriage is enjoined upon every Muslim, and
celibacy is frequently condemned by Muham-
mad. The “clergy” are all married men, and
even the ascetic orders are, as George Herbert
would have said, “rather married than un-
married.” It is related in the Hadis, that
Muhammad said that ‘when the servant of God

* In Muhammadan law woman instead of being man’s
“ better-half ” is only equal to half a man!

120

marries he perfects half his religion.” Not long
ago we met a Faqir of the Nukshbandia order, a
man of considerable reputation at the court of
Cabul, who said that he wished to lead a celibate
life, but that his disciples had insisted upon his
“ perfecting his — ” by entering upon the
married state !

As the religious ceremony does not form
part of the legal conditions of marriage, there
is no uniformity of ritual observed in its cele-
bration. Some Qazis merely recite the Fatiha
(the first chapter of the Quran) and the Darūd
or blessing, but the following is the more
common order of performing the service. The
Qazi, the bridegroom, and the bride’s attorney,
with the witnesses having assembled in some
convenient place (but not in a mosque),
arrangements are made as to the amount of
Dower or Mahr. The bridegroom then repeats
after the Qazi the following:—

1. The Istighfar “ I desire forgiveness from
God. >)

2. The four chapters of the Qurān com-
mencing with the word “ Qul.” These chapters
have nothing in them connected with the subject

121

of marriage, and appear to be selected on
account of their brevity.

3. The Kalima, or Creed. There is no God
but God and Muhammad is the Prophet of God.

4. The Sift ul Imān. A profession of belief
in God, the angels, the scriptures, the prophets,
the resurrection, and in fate or absolute decree

of good and evil.
The Ģāzī then requests the bride’s attorney
to take the hand of the bridegroom, and to say,
“such an one’s daughter by the agency of her
attorney and by the testimony of two witnesses,
has, in your marriage with her, had such a
dower settled upon her, do you consent to it?”
‘To which the bridegroom replies “ with my
whole heart and soul, to my marriage with this
woman as well as to the dower already settled
upon her, I consent, I consent, I consent!

After this the Qazi raises his hands and offers
the following prayer :— !

“QO great God! grant that mutual love may
reign between this couple, as it existed between
Adam and Eve, Abraham and Sarah, Joseph
and Zulekha,* Moses and Zipporah, his High-

* According to Muhammad, Joseph afterwards married
Zulekha, the widow of Potiphar.

122

ness Muhammad and Aaysha, and his Highness
Ali Murtuza and Fatimah-uz-Zahra.”

The ceremony being over, the bridegroom
embraces his friends and receives their con-
gratulations. Niakahis preceded and followed
by festive rejoicings which have been variously
described by oriental travellers, but they are not
parts of either the civil or religious ceremony.

In Islamism the wife is the property of the
husband, and consequently she can be disposed
of by divorce at a moment’s notice.

An absolute divorce, or Talāg i Mutlag,
consists of the mere repetition of the words,
“ Thou art divorced,” three times. A woman
so divorced cannot be restored to her husband
until she has been married to another and
again divorced.

A woman divorced can claim her dowry, but
the difficulty of restoring the dowry is avoided
by compelling the poor woman through harsh
treatment, to sue for a divorce herself, as in
this case she can claim nothing.

XXXVII.—JANAZA, OR BURIĀL.

Janāza is the term used both for the bier and
for the Muhammadan funeral service. The

123

burial service is founded upon the practice of
Muhammad, and varies but little in different
countries, although the ceremonies connected
with the funeral procession are diversified. In
Egypt, for instance, the male relations and
friends of the deceased precede the corps whilst
the female mourners follow behind.

In North India and Central Asia, women do
- not usually attend funerals, and the friends and

. relatives of the deceased walk behind the bier.

There is a tradition amongst some Muham-
madans that no one should precede the corpse,
as the angels go before. Funeral processions
in Central Asia are usually very simple in their
arrangements, and are said to be more in accord-
ance with the practice of the “Prophet”
than those of Egypt and Turkey. It is
considered a very meritorious act to carry the
bier, and four from among the near relations,
every now and then relieved by an equal
number, carry it on their shoulders. Unlike
our Christian custom of walking slowly to the
grave, Muhammadans carry their dead quickly
to the place of interment, for Muhammad is
related to have said that it is good to carry the

124

dead quickly to the grave to cause the righteous
person to arrive soon at happiness, and if he be
a bad man it is well to put wickedness away
from one’s shoulders. Funerals should always
be attended on foot, for it is said that Muham-
mad on one occasion rebuked his people for
following a bier on horseback. “Have you no
_ shame?” said he, “since God’s angels go on foot
and you go upon the backs of quadrupeds ?”
It isa highly meritorious act to attend a funeral
whether it be that of a Muslim, a Jew, or a
Christian. There are, however, two traditions
given by Bokhari, which appear to mark a
change of feeling on the part of the time-serving
prophet of Arabia towards the Jews and
Christians. ‘A bier passed by the Prophet and
he stood up: and it was said to his highness, ~
this is the bier of a Jew. “It is the holder of
a soul,” he replied, “ from which we should take
warning and fear.” This rule is said to have
been abrogated, for, “on one occasion the
Prophet sitting on the’ road when a bier passed,
and his highness disliked that the bier of a Jew
should be higher than his blessed head, and he
therefore stood up.” - Notwithstanding these

125
contradictory traditions, we believe that in all

countries Muhammadans are wont to pay
great respect to the funerals of both Jews
and Christians. Not long ago, about sixty
Muhammadans attended the funeral of an
Armenian Christian lady at Peshawur when
the funeral service was read by the Native
Clergyman. In the procession the Muham-
madans took their turn with the Native
Christian converts in carrying the bier, and
assisting in lowering the coffin into the grave.
During the reading of the service, some few
seated themselves on the grass, but the majority
listened attentively to the funeral office which
was impressively read by the Native Pastor,
himself a Christian convert from Muham-
madanism.

The Muhammadan funeral setvice is not ©
recited in the graveyard, it being too polluted
a place for so sacred an office, but either in a
mosque or in some open space near the dwelling
‘of the deceased person or the graveyard. The
owner of the corpse, 2.¢., the nearest relative,
is the proper person to recite the service, but it
is usually said by the BDL Imām or the

village Qazi.

126
The following is the order of the service :—

Some one present calls out,
« Here begin the prayers for the dead.”

Then those present arrange themselves in three, five,
or seven rows opposite the corpse, with their faces Qibla-
wards (i.e., towards Mecca). The Imam stands in front of
the ranks opposite the head of the corpse if it be that of
a male, or the waist, if it be that of a female.

The whole company having taken up the Qiam or stand-
ing position, the Imam recites the Niyat. |

“I purpose to perform prayers to God, for
this dead person, consisting of four Takdirs.

Then placing his hands to the lobes of his ears, he says
the first Takbir.

“God is great!”

Then folding his hands, the right hand placed upon the
left, below the navel, he recites the Subhan ;

- “% Holiness to Thee, O God”
“ And to Thee be Praise ”
“ Great is Thy Name”
“ Great is Thy Greatness ”
- Great is Thy Praise ”
* There is no God but Thee. ”

127
Then follows the second Takbir:

4 Godiis great!”
Then the Darūd:

“O God, have mercy on Muhammad and
upon his descendants, as Thou didst bestow
mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compas-
sion and great kindness upon Abraham and
upon his descendants.”

“Thou art praised and Thou art great!”

“O God, bless Muhammad and his descend-
ants as Thou didst bless and didst have com-
passion and great kindness upon Abraham and
upon his descendants.”

Then follows the third Takbar :
“ God is great!”
After which the following prayer ( Dua’) is recited :

* (). God, forgive our living and our dead,
and those of us who are present, and those
who are absent, and our children, and our full
grown persons, our men and our women.
God, those whom Thou dost keep alive amongst
us, keep alive in Islām, and those whom thou
causest to die, let them die in the Faith.”

128

Then follows the fourth Takbir:
* God is great!”
Turning the head round to the right, he says:
* Peace and mercy be to Thee”
Turning the head round to the left, he says:

“ Peace and mercy be to Thee”

The Takbīrs and the Salāms are repeated
aloud by the people, but the Subhan, the
Darud and the Dua’ are recited oy the Imam
alone.

The people then seat themselves on the
ground and raise their hands in silent prayer
in behalf of the deceased’s soul, and afterwards
addressing the relatives they say “It is the
decree of God.” To which the chief mourner
replies “I am pleased with the will of God.”
He then gives permission to the people to
retire, by saying, “ There is permission to
depart.”

Those who wish to return to their houses do
so at this time, and the rest proceed to the
grave. The corpse is then placed on its back
in the grave, with the head to the north and

129

feet to the south, the face being turned towards
Mecca. The persons who place the corpse in -
the grave repeat the following sentence: “ We
commit thee to earth in the name of God and
in the religion of the Prophet.”

The bands of the shroud having been loosed,
the recess, which is called the lahadd, is closed
in with unburnt bricks and the grave filled
in with earth. In some countries it is usual
‘to recite the Surat 1 Twa Hah as the clods
of earth are thrown into the grave, but this
practice is objected to by the Wahabis and
by many learned divines. This chapter is as
follows :—

* From it (the earth) have We (God) created
you, and unto it will We return you, and out
of it will We bring you forth the second time.”

After the burial, the people offer a fatihah
(i.e., the first chapter of the Qurdn).in the ©
name of the deceased, and again when they
have proceeded about forty paces from the
grave they offer another fatihah, for at this
juncture, it is said, the two angels Munkir and
Nakir examine the deceased as to his faith.
After this food is distributed to beggars and

130

religious mendicants as a propitiatory offering
to God, in the name of the deceased person.

If the grave be for the body of a woman, it
should be to the height of a man’s chest, if for
a man, to the height of the waist. At the
bottom of the grave the recess is made on the
side to receive the corpse, which is called the
lahadd. The dead are seldom interred in
coffins, although they are not prohibited.

To build tombs with stones or burnt bricks,
or to write a verse of the Quran upon them is
forbidden in the Hadis, but large stone and
brick tombs are common to all Muhammadan
countries, and very frequently they bear inscrip-
tions.

On the third day after the burial of the dead,
it is usual for the relatives to visit the grave,
and to recite selections from the Quran. Those
who can afford to pay Moulvies, employ these
learned men to recite the whole of the Quran
at the graves of their deceased relatives; and,
as we have already remarked, in a former article,
the Quran is divided into sections to admit of
its being recited by the several Moulvies at
once. During the days of mourning the

131

relatives abstain from wearing any article of
dress of a bright colour and their soiled
garments remain unchanged.

XXXVIII..THE KHUTBAH.

"The Khutbah is the oration or sermon deli-
vered in the mosque every Friday and on the
two chief festivals,* after the meridian prayer.
After the usual ablutions. the four Sunnat
prayers are recited. The Khatīb or preacher
then seats himself on the Mimbar (pulpit)
whilst the Muezzan proclaims the Azān, after
which he stands up on the second stepf and
delivers the sermon, which must be in the
Arabic language, and include prayers for
‘“‘ Muhammad, the.companions, and the King,”
There are several books of Khutbahs published

* The 'Id-i-Fitr and the ’Id-i-Zoha.

+The Mimbar is the pulpit of a mosque. It consists of
three steps and is sometimes a moveable wooden structure,
and sometimes a fixture of brick or stone built against the
wall. Muhammad in addressing the congregation stood on
the uppermost step. Abu Bakr on the second, and Omar
on the third or the lowest ; Othman being the most modest
of the Khalifs would have gladly descended lower if he
could have done so, but this being impossible, he fixed

upon the second step, from which it is still the custom to
preach.

132

for the use of preachers. The most celebrated
of these preachers’ manuals is the Mujmua
Kitab, printed by Abdur Rahman of Cawn-
pore. The sermons are arranged for every
Friday in the year, and are the compositions of
various Muslim divines. It is remarkable that
short sermons are meritorious, for it is related
that the “‘ Prophet ” remarked that ‘the length
of a man’s prayers and the shortness of his
sermon are the signs of his. sense and under-
standing; therefore make your prayers long and
your Khutbah short.”

The following is a translation of the third
Khutbah in the book of sermons already men-
tioned ; it is a fair specimen of an average
Khutbah both as to its length and matter :—

“ In the name of God, the compassionate, the
merciful.”

“Praised be God. Praised be that God who
hath shown us the way in this religion. If He
had not guided us into the path we should not
have found it.”

* I] bear witness that there is no Deity but
God. He is one. He has no associate. I
bear witness that Muhammad is of a truth His

133

servant and His Apostle. May God have
mercy upon him, and upon.his descendants,
and upon his companions, and give them
peace.” |

“ Fear God, O ye people, and fear that day,
the day of judgment, when a father will not be-
able to answer for his son, nor the son for the
father. Of a truth, God’s promises are true.
Let not this present life make you proud. Let
not the deceiver (Satan) lead you astray.”

* () ye people who have believed, turn ye to
God, as Nasua* did turn to God. Verily God
doth forgive all sin, verily He is the merciful,
the forgiver of sins. Verily He is the most
munificent, and bountiful, the King, the Holy
One, the Clement, the Most Merciful.”

The preacher then descends from the pulpit
and sitting on the floor of the mosque offers up
a silent prayer. He then, again, ascends the
Mimbar as before and proceeds thus :—

“ In the name of God, the compassionate, the
merciful.”

* Nasuā. Is a name which occurs in the sixth verse of

` the Surat-i-Tahrimah (cixc) in the Quran; it is translated

“ true repentance,” by Sale and Rodwell, but it is supposed
to be a person’s name by several commentators.

134

“Praised be God. We praise Him. We
seek help from Him. We ask forgiveness of
sins. We trust in Him. We seek refuge in
Him from evil desires and from former sinful
actions. He who has God for his guide 1s
never lost, and whomsoever He leadeth aside,
none can guide into the right path.”

* We bear witness that there is no Deity but
’ God. . He is one. He hath no partner.”

“Verily we bear witness that Muhammad
is the servant and apostle of God, and may
God have mercy upon him, who is more exalted
than any being. May God have mercy upon
his descendants, and upon his companions!
May God give them peace! Especially upon .
Amir-ul-Mominin Abu Bakar Sadiq (may God
be pleased with him). And upon him who
was the most temperate of the “ friends”
Amir-ul-Mominin Omar Ibn Khattab (may
God be pleased with him). And upon him
whose modesty and faith were perfect, Amir-
ul-Mominin Othman (may God be pleased
with him). And upon the Lion of the
powerful God, Amir-ul-Mominin Ali ibn
Abu-Talib (may God be pleased with him).

135

And upon the two Imams the holy ones, the
two martyrs, Amir-ul-Mominin Abu Muham-
mad Hassan and Abu Abdullah Hosein (may
God be pleased with both of them). And
upon the mother of these two persons, the
chief of women, Fatimah-tu-Zārah (may God
be pleased with her). And upon his (Muham-
mad's) two uncles, Hamza and Abbas (may |
God be pleased with them). And upon the
rest of the “companions,” and upon the “‘ fol-
lowers ” (may God be pleased with all of them).
Of Thy mercy, O most merciful ofall merciful
ones, O God, forgive all Mussalman men and
Mussalman women, all male believers and all
female believers. Of a truth thou art He who
wilt receive our prayers.” E

“ O God help those who help the religion of
Muhammad. May we also exert ourselves to
help those who help Islam. Make those weak, '
who weaken the religion of Muhammad.”
40 God bless the king of the age, and make
him kind and favorable to the people.” __

“QO servants of God, may God have mercy
upon you. Verily, God enjoineth justice and
the doing of good and gifts to kindred; and He

136

forbiddeth wickedness, and wrong, and oppres-
sion. He warneth you that haply ye may be
mindful.” *

“O ye people, remember the great and
exalted God. He will also remember you.
He will answer your prayers. The remem-
brance of God is great, and good, and honour-
able, and noble, and meritorious, and worthy,
and sublime.”

The preacher then descends, and taking up
his position as Imam, facing the Mihrab,t
conducts two rikat prayers. The Khatib,
however, does not always officiate as Imam.

In the above Khutbah we have inserted the
petition usually offered up in behalf of “the
king ” in India, although it does not occur in
the collection of sermons from which we have
translated. Until the Mutiny of 1857, we
believe that in the majority of mosques in
North India it was recited in the name of the
King of Delhi, and even now we are informed
that some bigoted Imāms say it in the name of

* The 92 verse of Surat-i-Nahe (cxvi) of the Quran.

+ The Mihrab is the centre of the wall of a mosque, facing

Mecca, to which the Imam (priest) prays. It usually con-
sists of a circular niche in the wall.

137

Abdul Aziz Sultan of Turkey. ‘The recital of
the Khutbah serves to remind every Muham-
madan priest, at least once a week, that he is in
the land of warfare (Dar-ul-Harb), and the
fact that Muhammadans under Christian rule
are in an anomalous position, is a source of
trouble to many a conscientious Muslim. A
few years ago, a celebrated Muhammadan divine
sent for a native Christian officer, as he wished
to obtain his aid in an important matter. The
nature of the good man’s difficulty was as
follows:—The Friday prayer or Khutbah
must, according to Muhammadan law, be said
in the name and by the permission of the
ruler of the land. He. had been saying the
Friday prayer without permission of the ruler,
and he feared that these prayers had con- `
sequently not been accepted by the Almighty,
He therefore asked the Christian officer to
obtain the necessary permission from the magis-
trate of the district. The Christian was also a
man versed in Muslim law, and he quoted
authorities to prove that the permission of an
“infidel” ruler was not what Islamism en-
joined. |

138

In Turkey and Egypt and in other countries
under Muslim rule, it is the custom for the
Khatib to deliver the Khutbah whilst he holds
a wooden sword reversed.

The prayer for the reigning monarch if he |
be a Muslim would be offered up in the follow-
_ Ing manner :—

“Q God aid Islam, and strengthen its
pillars, and make infidelity ‘to tremble, and
destroy its might, by the preservation of Thy
servant, and the son of Thy servant, the sub-
missive to the might of Thy Majesty and Glory,
whom God hath aided, our master Ameer Sher
Ali Khan, son of Ameer Dost Muhammad
Khan, may God assist him and prolong his
reign. QO God assist him and assist his armies.
O Thou God of the religion and Lord of the
world, assist the armies of Muslims; frustrate
the armies of infidels and polytheists, thine
enemies, the enemies of the religion.”

XXXIX.—FAQIRS OR DARWESHES.

The Arabic word Faqir signifies poor, but it
is used in the sense of being in need of mercy

139

and poor in the sight of God, rather than in
need of worldly assistance. Darwesh is de- .
rived from the Persian dar a door. Those who
beg from door to door. The terms are generally
used for those who lead a religious life.
Religious Fagīrs are divided into two great |
classes, the ba Shara’ (with the law), or those who
govern their conduct according to the principles
of Islam; and the be Shara’ (without the law),
or those who do not rule their lives according to
the principles of any religious creed, although
they call themselves Musulmans. The former
are called Salik, or travellers on the pathway
(tarīgat) to heaven; and the latter are either
Azād (free) or Majzūb (abstracted). The Sālik
embrace the various religious orders who per-
form the Zikrs described in our next note. The
Majzūb are totally absorbed in religious reverie.
The Azād shave their beards, whiskers, mous
tachios, eyebrows and eyelashes, and lead lives
of celibacy.

The Azad and Majzub Faqirs can scarcely be
said to be Muhammadans, so that a description
of their various sects do not fall within the
limits of these notes. The Salik Fagirs are also

140

divided into very numerous orders, but their
chief difference consists in their Silsilah, or
chain of succession, from their great teachers
Ali-ul-Murtuza or the Kaliph Ali, and Abu
Bakar Sadiq, who are said to have been the
founders of the religious’ order of Faqirs.
European writers have distinguished the various
orders by their dress and their religious per-
formances, but we have not been able to find
that these are the distinguishing features of
difference amongst them.

The following are the chief orders which are
met with in North India.

1. The Naqshbandia are followers of Khwajah
Pir Muhammad Nagshband, and are a very
numerous sect; they usually perform the
Zikr-1-Khafa, or the silent religious devotion
described in the next chapter.

2. The Qadiria sprung from the celebrated
Syud Abdul Qadir, surnamed Pir Dustagir,
whose shrine is at Bagdad. They practise both
the Zikr-i-Jil and the Zikr-1-Khafi. Most of
the Sunni Moulvies on the north-west frontier
of India are members of this order. In Egypt
it is most popular amongst fishermen.

141
3. The Chistia are followers of Banda

Nawaz, surnamed the Gaysu dardz, or the
long-ringletted. His shrine is at Calburgah.

The Shiahs generally become Fagīrs of this
order. They are partial to vocal music, for
the founder of the order remarked, that singing
was the food and support of the soul. They
perform the Zikr-i-Jili.

4. The Jalilia were founded by Syud Jalāl-
udin of Bokhāra. They are met with in
Central Asia. Religious mendicants are often
of this order.

5. The Sarwardia are a popular order in
Afghanistan and comprise a number of learned
men. They are the followers of Hasan Bisri of
Basra near Bagdad.

These are the most noted orders of ba Shara’
Fagīrs. The be Shara’ Fair sare very nume-
rous. The most popular order is that of the
Mudarīa founded by Zinda Shah Murdār of
Syria, whose shrine is at Mukanpur in Oude. `
From these have sprung the Mallang Fagīrs
who crowd the bazaars of India. They wear
their hair matted and tied in a knot. The
Rafia order is also a numerous one in some

142

parts of India. They practise the most severe.
discipline and mortify themselves by beating
their bodies.

D’Ohsson enumerates thirty-two of the
principal religious orders, giving the name of

the founder, and the place of his shrine:

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145

We insert the above list on the authority of
M. D'Ohsson, but we have not had an oppor:
tunity of testing the correctness of its infor-
. Ination. |

The order of Maulevis is the most popular
religious order in Constantinople. They are
called by Europeans the dancing, or whirling
darveshes, and their religious performances
constitute one of the public rights in Con-
stantinople. They have service at their Takiya
or convent, every Wednesday, and at Kasim
Pashah every Sunday, at two o’clock. There
are about twenty performers, with high round
felt caps and brown mantles. At a given
signal they all fall flat on their faces, and rise
and walk slowly round and round with their
arms folded, bowing and turning slowly several
times. They then cast off their mantles and
appear in long bell-shaped petticoats and
jackets, and then begin to spin, revolving,
dancing, and turning with extraordinary
velocity.

The founder of this religious order was a
native of Balkh, in central Asia. It is said the
spiritual powers of this extraordinary man were

146

developed at the early age of six years; for
once on a Friday Jilal u din was at Balkh on
the roof of a house with some children of his
own age, when one of the boys asked him if it
were possible for him to jump from one house to
the other. He replied,‘ If you have faith, jump
up towards heaven.” He then sprang upwards,
and was immediately lost to sight. The youths
all cried out as he disappeared, but he soon
returned from the celestial regions, greatly
altered in complexion and changed in figure,
for he had obtained a ere of the abodes of
bliss ! !

It is impossible to become mai with
all the rules and ceremonies of the numerous
orders of Fagīrs, for, like those of the free-
masons, they may not be divulged to the un-
initiated.

The following is said to be the usual method
of admitting a Muhammadan to the order of a
ba Shara’ Faqir. Having first performed the
legal ablutions, the Murid (disciple) seats him-
self before the Murshid (spiritual guide). The
Murshid then takes the Murid’s right hand,
and requires of him a confession of sin accord-

147

ing to the following form: “I ask forgiveness
of the great God than Whom there is no other
. Deity, the Eternal, the Everlasting, the Living
One: I turn to Him for repentance, and beg
His grace and forgiveness.” This, or a similar
form of repentance, is repeated several times.
The Murid then repeats after the Murshid :—
“T beg for the favour of God and of the Pro-
phet, and I take for my guide to God (here
naming the Murshid) not to change or to sepa-
rate. God is our witness. By the great God.
There is no Deity but God. Amin.” The Mur-
shid and the Murid then recite the first chapter
of the Quran, and the Murid concludes the
ceremony by kissing the Murshid’s hand.
After the initiatory rite, the Murid undergoes
a series of instructions, including the Ztkrs,
which he is reguired to repeat daily. The
Murid frequently visits his Murshid, and some-
times the Murshids proceed on a circuit of
visitation to their disciples. The place where
these “holy men” sit down to instruct the
people is ever afterwards held sacred, a small
flag is hoisted on a tree, and it is fenced in.

Such places are called “ Takiya,” and are prc-

148

tected and kept free from pollution by some
Faqir engaged for the purpose.

Those faqirs who attain to a high degree
of sanctity are called Wallis, the highest rank of
which is that ofa Ghaus. Ofsuch is the Akhund
of Swat on the north-west frontier of India.
This celebrated religious leader at the age of
eighteen became a member of the Qadaria order
of Fagīrs, and shortly after his incorporation,
he settled down on a small island in the river
Indus near Attock, where he lived the life of
a recluse for twelve years. During this timeit —
is said, his only diet was the wild-grass seed
and buffalo’s milk. He soon acquired a repu-
tation for sanctity, and has gradually become
the great religious leader of Central Asia. He
now resides at the village of Seydu in Swat,
where he entertains as many as a thousand
visitors daily ; men from all parts of the Muslim
world, who come to hear his wisdom and receive
the benefit of his prayers. The Akhund has:
* always been a great opponent of Wahabi
doctrines ; and although he is not well-read in
Muslim divinity, his fatwahs on religious cere-
monies and secular observances are received

149

and obeyed by all the Sunni Muhammadans of
the north-west frontier of British India.*

XL.—ZIKR.

Zikr is the religious ceremony, or act of
devotion, which is practised by the various
religious orders of Faqirs or Darweshes. Almost
every religious Muhammadan is a member of
some order of Faqirs and consequently the
performance of Zikr is very common in all
Muhammadan countries; but it does not appear
that any one method of performing the religious
service of Zikr, is peculiar to any particular
order.

Zikrs are of two kinds. Ztkr-2-Jth, that
which is recited aloud ; and Zkr-2-Khafi, that
which is performed either with a low voice or
mentally.

The Nukhsbandia order of Fakirs usually
perform the latter, whilst the Chistia and

* An account of the Muhammadan Darveshes has been
„written by Mr. J. P. Brown, Secretary of the United States

Legation at Constantinople, and is published by Trubner &
Co., London.

150

Qadaria orders celebrate the former. There
are various ways of going through the exercise,
but the main features of each are similar in
character. The following is a Zkr-i-Jili as
given in the book Qaul-ul-Jamil, by Moulvie
Shah Wali Ullah of Delhi :—

1.—The worshipper sits in the usual sitting
posture and shouts the word Al-lah (God)
drawing his voice from his left side and then
from his throat.

2.—Sitting as at prayers he repeats the word
Al-lah still louder than before first from his
right knee, and then from his left side.

3.—Folding his legs under him he repeats
the word Al-lah first from his right knee and
then from his left side, still louder!

4.—Still remaining in the same position, he
shouts the word Al-lah, first from the left knee
then from the right knee, then from the left
side, and lastly in front, still louder!

5.—NSitting as at prayer with his face towards
Mecca he closes his eyes, says “ La”—drawing
the sound as from his navel up to his left
shoulder. Then he says 7-ld-ha, drawing out
the sound as from his brain, and lastly

151

“ i-lal-la-hu” repeated from his left side with
great energy. |

Each of these stages is called a Zarb. They
are of course recited many hundreds of times
over, and the changes we have described
account for the variations of sound and motion
of the body described by eastern travellers who
have witnessed the performance of a Zikr.

The following is a Zikr-i-Khafi or that which
is performed in either a low voice or mentally.

1.—Closing his eyes and lips he says “with
the tongue of the heart.”

« Al-la-ho sam-i-un,” ‘ God the hearer.”

“ Al-la-ho-baswīr-un,” ‘“ God the seer.”

“ Al-la-ho-’alimun,” * God the knower.”

The first being drawn as it were from the
navel to the breast. The second from the breast
tothe brain. The third from the brain up to the
heavens; and then again repeated stage by
stage backwards and forwards.

2.—He says in a low voice “ Allah” from
the right knee and then from the left side.

3.—With each exhalation of his breath he
says “ la-il-la-ha” and with each inhalation,
“il-lal-la-ho.” |

152

This third Zarb is a most exhausting act of
devotion, performed as it is hundreds or even
thousands of times, and is therefore considered
the most meritorious.*

Another act of devotion which usually ac-
companies the Ztkr is that of Murdgaba or
Meditation. |

The worshipper first performs Zikr- of the
following :—

*Allaho hāzarī,” * God the present one.”

* Allaho nāzarī,” ' God the seer.”

* Allaho shahidi,” ‘ God who witnesses.”

* Allaho maī,” “God who is the with us.”

Having recited this Zikr, either aloud or
mentally, the worshipper proceeds to meditate
upon some verse or verses of the Qurān. Those
recommended for the Qadīrīa Faqīrs by Moulvie
Shah-wali-ullah are the following, which we give
as indicating the line of thought which is con-

* It is related that Moulvie Habib Ullah, now living in
the village of Gabāsanri, in the Gadūn country, on the
Peshawur frontier, has become such an adept in the perform-
ance of this zarb that he recites the first part of the zikr
la-il-la-ha with the exhalation of his breath after the mid-
day prayer, and the second part, il-lal-la-ho with the
inhalation of his breath before the next time of prayer, thus
sustaining his breath for the period of about three hours!

153

sidered most devotional and spiritual by Muslim
Divines :—
1.—Chapter 57, v. 3. (Surat-i-Hadīd).
“He (God) is first; -He is last; the
manifest and the hidden, and who
| knoweth all things.”
2.—Chapter 15, v. 4. (Surat-i-Hadīd).
“ He (God) is with you wheresoever ye
be.”
8.—GChapter 50, v. 16. (Surat-i-(āf).
We (God) are closer to him (man)
than his neck vein.”
4.—GChapter 2, v. 109. (Surat-i-Baqr). _
“Whichever way ye turn there is the

face of God.”
5.—Chapter 4, v. 125. (Surat-i-Nisa).
“God encompasseth all things.”

6.—Chapter 55, v. 7. (Surat-i-Rahmān).
‘“ All on earth shall pass away, but the
face of thy God shall abide resplen-

dent with majesty and glory.”

Some Murshids (teachers) tell their Murids.
(disciples) that the heart has two doors, that
which is fleshly, and that which is spiritual,
and that. the Ztkr-t-Jzlt has been established for

154

the opening of the former, and Zikr-i-Khafi for
the latter, in order that they may both be en-
lightened.

There certainly must be something invigora-

ting in the exercise of a Zikr-i-Jil to a religious
devotee, who seldom stirs out of his mosque,
and we have often been told by Moulvies, that
they find the performance of a Zikr keeps evil
thoughts from the mind ; but as some of the
most devoted Zākirs (i.e., those who perform
the Zikr) are amongst the most immoral men,
the religious exercise does not appear to have
any lasting effect on the moral character.
_ As a curious instance of the superstitious
character of this devotional exercise, the Chistia
order believe that if a man sits cross-legged
and seizes the vein called Kaimds, which is
under the leg, with his toes, that it will give
peace to his heart, when accompanied by a Zikr
of the “nafi isbāt,” which is a term used for
the first part of the Kalima, which forms the
usual Zikr, namely :

“ La-il-la-ha-il-la-ho,” “ There. is no Deity
but God.” |

The most common form of Zikr is a recital

155

of the ninety-nine names of God, for Muhammad
promised those of his followers who recited them
a sure entrance to paradise.*

To facilitate this repetition, the Zakir uses a
Tasbih or Rosary of ninety-nine beads. The
Wahabis, however, do not use this invention,
but count on their fingers. The introduction
of the Rosary amongst Roman Catholics is
generally ascribed to Dominic, the founder of
the Black Friars (a.p. 1221), but Dean Hook
says it was in use in the year 1100 ; it is there-
fore not improbable that the Crusaders borrowed
it from their Muslim opponents, and it is thought
that the Muhammadans received it from the
_ Buddhists.

There are several lists of the supposed ninety-
nine namest of God, but the following is given
by Muslim and Bokhari in their collections of
traditions —

1. Rahmān - - The Compassionate.
2. Rahim - - The Merciful.
3. Malik - + The King.

* Vide Mishgat, Book exi. - E

t Surat al Arāf (vii.) 179. “ Most excellent titles hath
God by these, call ye upon him.”

asis

12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

156

Quddus - -

Salām - .
Momin - -
Mohymin - -
"Aziz - - -

. Jabbār 2 g
10.

Mutakabbir -

K halig - -
Bārī - - -
Musawwir - -
Ghafār - .
Qahar - -
Wahāb - -
Razāq - -
Fatah - . -
'Alīm - - -
Qābiz (or Qābid)

Bāsit - - -
Khāfiz (or Khafid)
Rafi’ - - -
Mu'iz - .
Samia’ - °
Basīr - °

The Holy One.
The Peace.
The Faithful.
The Protector.
The Incomparable.
The Benefactor.

„The Mighty Doer.

The Creator.

The Maker.

The Former.

The Pardoner.

The Powerful.

The Giver.

The Bestower of
Daily Bread.

The Opener.

The Omniscient.
The Restrainer.
The Expander.
The Depresser.
The Exalter.

The Strengthener.
The Sowerer.

The Hearer.

The Seer.

28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
86.
87.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.

45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
91.

Hakam
’ Adal

Latif -
Khabir
Halim -
’ Azim

Ghafūr
Shakir
"Ali -
Kabir

Hafiz -
Mugīt -
Hasīb

Jalīl -
Karīm

Ragīb -
Mujīb -

Wāsia'

Hakīm '

Wadūd
Majīd

Bāis (or Baith)

Shahīd
Haqq à

The Judge.

The Just.

The Benignant.
The Knower.
The Clement.
The Great.

- The Great Pardoner.

The Rewarder.

The Most High.

The Great Lord.
The Guardian.

The Giverof Strength

-= The Reckoner.

The Glorious.

The Munificent. ,

The Watcher.
The Approver of

Supplications.
The Expander.
The Physician.
The All-Loving.
The Glorious.
The Awakener.
The Witness.
The True.

52.
53.
54.
55.
56.

57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.

Wakīl -

Qawi - “
Matin - °
Wali - -
Hamid -
Mohswi -
Mubdi -
Mu’id -
Mohyi -
Mohmīt -
Hai - -
Qyam -
Wajid -
Majīd +
Wāhid -
Samad -
Qadir -
Mugtadir -
Mugaddim

Muwakkklūr
Awwal -
Akhir - e
Zahir - -
Bātin - -

The Provider.
The Powerful.
The Firm.
The Friend.

. The One to be

Praised.
The Counter.

_ The Cause.

The Restorer.

The Life-giver.
The Death-giver.
The Living.

The Self-subsisting.
The Finder.

The Grand.

The Unique.

The Eternal.

The Powerful.

The Prevailing.
The Bringer before.
The Bringer after.
The First.

The Last.

The Evident.

The Hidden.

76.
TT.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.

84.

85.

86,

87.
- 88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.

99.

159

Wali- . .

Mutaāil - -
Bar - - -
Tawwāb - -
Muntagģim - -
Afū - e -
Rāuf - - -
Mālik-ul-Mulk -

Zuljalāl-wal-Ikrām

Muksit - -
Jami’ - =
Ghani - =-
Moghanī - -
Mo’twi - -
Māni- - -
Zārr (or Dārr) -
Nafi’ - - -
Nur - - -

Hādī - - -
Badia’ - -
Bāgi - =
Waris (or Warith)
Rashid - -

Sabūr - - -

The Governor.

The Sublime.

The Doer of Good.

The Propitious.

The Avenger.

The Eraser.

The Benefiter.

The King of King-
doms.

The Lord of Glory
and Honour.

The Equitable.

The Assembler.

The Rich.

The Enricher.

The Giver.

The Withholder.

The Afflicter.

The Benefactor.

The Light.

The Guide.

The Incomparable.

The Eternal.

The Inheritor.

The Director.

The Patient.

160

The list either begins or closes with the
peculiar designation of God, Allah, making
the complete number of one hundred names
for the Deity. !

The following names occur in other works
which we have consulted, and are sometimes
used in place of some of those in the list
already given. Azali, the Eternal; Abadi,
the Everlasting; Moula, the Lord; Ahad,
the only One; Munem, the Giver of Blessing;
Sadig, the Righteous One; Sattar, the Con-
cealer of Sins; abd, the Sustainer.

In addition to these words the prefix and
inflexion are used thus Ar-Rahimo! Al-
Māliko! As-Samio! &c. Many of the titles ©
will appear to the English reader to be syno-
nymous, but Muslim theologians discover in
them shades of difference. It will be observed
that the titles are not arranged in philosophical
order.

In addition to the forms of Zikr already
mentioned there are four others which are even
of more common use and are known as Tasbih,
Tahmid, Tahlil and Takbir. They are used as
extlamations of joy and surprise, as well as for
the devotional exercise of Zikr.

161

Tasbih is the expression—Subhan- Allah!
Holiness be to God !

Tahmid. Allamdo-Lilla! Thanks to be God.

Tahlīl. XLa-ilaha-il-lal-la-ho! There is no
Deity but God!

Takbir. Allaho-Akbar! God is Great!

Muhammad said “Repeat the Tasbih a
hundred times, and a thousand virtues shall be
recorded by God for you, ten virtuous deeds
for each repetition.

When the Tasbih and Tahmīd are recited
together it is said thus, Subhan-Allah wa’
Bihamdihi, 7.e., Holiness be to God with His
praise. It is related in the Hadis that Muham-
mad said whoever recites this sentence a
hundred times morning and evening will have
all his venial sins forgiven.

In forming our estimation of Muhammad and
Muhammadanism we must take into considera-
tion the important place the devotional exercise
of Zikr occupies in the system, not forgetting
that it has had the authoritative sanction of the
would-be Prophet.

162

XLL—SUFIISM.

The term Sufi is said by some writers to be
derived from the Arabic Suf “wool,” in allusion
to the woollen dress worn by the religious
Faqirs, it is, however, far more probable that
the term is derived from the Greek soos pure,
for whilst the woollen dress is not a distinguish-
ing feature of the sect, the search after metaphy-

sical purity, is the one great aim of every Sufi.

' Sufiism appears to be, but the Muslim adap-
tation of the doctrines of the philosophers of
the vedanta school, which we also find in the
writings of the old academies of Greece, and
which Sir W. Jones thinks Plato learned from
the sages of the East.*

It would far exceed the limits of these notes,
if we were to attempt a detailed account of
Sufi doctrines, but as the services of Zikr and
Murāgaba are used by the Sufi devotees, some
account of the sect is necessary.

In Sufiism the disciple (murīd) is invited to
proceed on the journey (tarīgat) under the guid-

* Asiatic Researches, vol. iii,, p. 165.

163

ance of a spiritual leader (murshid) who must
be considered superior to any human being.
The great business of the traveller (salzk) is to
exert himself, and strive to attain to the Divine
Light, and to go on to the knowledge of God.
God, according to Sufi belief, is diffused
throughout all things and the soul of man is
part of God, and not from Him. The soul of
man is an exile from its Creator, and human
existence is its period of banishment. The
object of Sufīism is to lead the soul onward,
' stage by stage, until it reaches the goal—
* perfect knowledge.”

The natural state of every Muslim is Nasut*
in which state the disciple must observe the
precepts of the law or Shariat, but as this is
the lowest form of spiritual existence, the per-
formance of the journey is en} joined upon every
searcher after Truth.

The following are the stages (manzal) which
the Sufi has to perform.f Having become a
searcher after God (a Talib) he enters the first
stage of 'Abūdīyat or service. When the

* From Nas, mankind.
+ Oriental Mysticism, by E. H. Palmer, p. 64.

164

Divine attraction has developed his inclination
- into the love of God, he is said to have
reached the second stage of 'Ishag, or Love.
This Divine Love expelling all worldly desires
from his heart, he arrives at the third stage
of Zudh or Seclusion. Occupying himself.
henceforward with contemplation and the in-
vestigations of the metaphysical theories con-
cerning the nature, attributes, and works of
God which are the characteristics of the Sufi
system, he reaches the fourth stage of Ma'rifat
or Knowledge. This assiduous contemplation
of metaphysical theories soon produces a state
of mental excitement, which is considered a
sure prognostication of direct illumination from
God. This fifth stage is called Wajd or
Ecstasy. During the next stage he is sup-
posed to receive a revelation of the true
nature of the Godhead and to have reached
the sixth stage of Hagīgat or the Truth.
The next stage is that of Wasl or union with
God, which is the highest stage to which he
can go whilst in the body, but when death.
overtakes him, it is looked upon as a total
re-absorption into the deity, forming the con-

165

summation of his journey and the eighth and
last stage of Fand or Extinction. That stage
in which the traveller is said to have attained
to the Love of God, is the point from which
the Suffistic poets love to discuss the doctrines
of their sect. The Salik or traveller is the
Lover (Ashag), and God is the Beloved One
(Mdshdk). This Divine love is the theme of
most of the Persian and Pushto poems, which
abound in Suffistic expressions which are |
difficult of interpretation to an ordinary
English reader. For instance, Sharab, Wine,
expresses the domination of Divine love in the
heart. isn, a Ringlet, the details of the
mysteries of Divinity. Maz Khana, a tavern,
a stage of the journey. Mirth, Wantonness,
and Inebriation, signify religious enthusiasm
and abstraction from worldly things.

The eight stages which we have given are
those usually taught by Sufi teachers in their
published works, but in North India we have
frequently met with persons of this sect, who
have learnt only the four following stages.

The first, Ndsut or humanity, for which
there is the Shariat or law. The second

166

Malaqut or the nature of angels, for which
there is Zarigat or the pathway of purity,
The third Jabrit, or the possession of power.
for which there is Marifat or knowledge.
And the fourth Lahut or extinction, for which
there is Hagigat or truth. _

In Professor Max-Miiller’s address to the
Aryan section of the International Congress
of Orientalists, assembled in London in Sep-
tember, 1874, he said, “We have learnt
already one lesson, that behind the helpless
expressions which language has devised, whe-
ther in the East or the West, for uttering
the unutterable * * * there is the
same intention, the same striving, the same
stammering, the same faith. Other lessons
will follow, till in the end we shall be able
to restore that ancient word which unites not
only the East with the West, but all the
members of the human family, and may
learn to understand what a Persian poet meant
when he wrote many centuries ago— diversity
of worship has divided the human race into
seventy-two nations.’ From all their dogmas
I have selected one—‘ the love of God.’ ”

167

By “the seventy-two* (seventy-three?)
nations ” are doubtless meant the number of
sects into which Muhammad said Islamism
would be divided; but the learned professor
surely cannot be ignorant of the fact, that the
* love of God” selected by the Persian poet as
the dogma par excellence was the “ Ishaq,” or
the second stage of the Suffistic journey. Only
those who have conversed with Sufis on this
mystical love can well realize, how impossible it
is for the Christian to reconcile that practical
love of God, which “gave His only begotten
Son,” and that practical love to God, which is
shown “by keeping His commandments,” with
that mystical love or [shaq, which is the subject
of Sufi divinity. Mystery is not distinctive of
Christianity, whilst it is the soul of Suffism,
the foundation, the top stone of the whole
system.

* Muhammad prophesied that as the Jews had been
divided into 71 sects, and the Christians into 72, the
Muslims would be divided into 73.

168

XLIIL.—THE FOUR ORTHODOX
SECTS.

There are four orthodox sects or schools of
interpretation amongst the Sunnis. The
Hanifi, the Shafai, the Maliki, and the Ham-
bali.

1. The Hanifis are found in Turkey, Central
Asia, and North India. The founder of this
sect was Imam Abu Hanifa, who was born at
Koofa, the capital of Irak, a.p. 702, or a.m. 80,
at which time four of the ‘ Prophet's” com-
panions were still alive. He is the great oracle
of jurisprudence, and he (with his two pupils
Imam Abu Yusaf and Imam Muhammad ) was
the founder of Hanifi Code of Law.*

2. The Shafais are found in South India. The
founder of this school of interpretation was
Imam Muhammad ibn i Idris al Shafai, who
was born at Askalon, in Palestine, a.p. 772.

3. The Malikis prevail in Morocco, Barbary
and other parts of Africa, and were founded by
Imam Malik, who was born at Medina, A.D.

* A Digest of the Hanifi Code of Law has been pub-
lished in English by Mr. N. B. E. Baillie.

169

716. He enjoyed the personal acquaintance of
Hanifa, and he was considered the most learned
man of his time.

4. The Hambalis were founded by Imam Abu
Abdula Ahmad ibn Hambal, who was born at
Bagdad, a.p. 786. He attended the lectures
delivered by Shafai, by whom he was instructed
in the traditions. His followers are found in
parts of Arabia, and in some parts of Africa,
but it 1s the least popular of the four schools of
interpretation. They have no Mufti at Mecca,
whilst the other three sects are represented
there.

From the disciples of these four great Imams .
have proceeded an immense number of com-
mentaries and other works, all differing on a
variety of points in their constructions, although
coinciding in their general principles.

XLHI.—THE SHIAS.

The Shias (lit. followers) are the followers
of Ali, the husband of Fatimah, the daughter
of Muhammad. They maintain that Ali was

' 170

the first legitimate Khalifa, or successor to
Muhammad, and therefore reject Abu Bakr,
Omar, and Osmān, the first three Khalifs, as
usurpers. According to the Shias the Muslim
religion consists of a knowledge of the true
[mdm, or leader, and the differences amongst
themselves with reference to this question have
given rise to endless divisions. Of the pro-
verbial seventy-three sects of Islam, not fewer
than thirty-two are assigned to the Shias.

The twelve Imams, according to the Shias,

_ are as follows :—

1. Hazrat Ali.
Imām Hassan.
. Imām Hussain.
. Zain-ul-Abid-dīn.
. Imim Muhammad Bagir.
. dafir Sadiq.
. Musa Kasim.
. Ali Musa Raza.
9. Muhammad Tagi.
10. Muhammad Naqi.
11. Hassan Askari.
'12. Abu Kasim (or Imām Mahdī).
The last Imām, Abu Kasim, is supposed

Mau ON po dO

171

by the Shias to be still alive and concealed
in some secret place, and that he is the same
Mahdi, or director, concerning whom Muham-
mad prophesied that the world should not
have an end until one of his own descendants
should govern the Arabians, and whose coming
in the last days is expected by all Muslims.

During the absence of the Imam the Shias
appeal to the Mujtahids, or enlightened doctors
of the law, for direction in all matters both
temporal and spiritual. Since the accession
of Ismail, the first of the Sufi dynasty, A.D.
1499, the Shia faith has been the national
religion of Persia. The enmity which exists
between Sunni and Shia Muhammadans is,
perhaps, hardly equalled by the mutual ani-
mosity which too often exists between
Romanists and Protestants.

It is not true that the Shia Muhammadans
reject the traditions of Muhammad, although
the Sunnis arrogate to themselves the title of
traditionists. They do not acknowledge the
Sahih Sita, or six correct books of the Sunnis
and Wahabis, but receive the five collections
of traditions, entitled :—

172

I. Kafi. 2. Mantayah-zarah-ul-Fagīh. 3.
Tahzīb. 4. Istibsar. 5. Nahaj-ul-Balāghat.

The Shia school of law is called the Imāmīa*
and it is earlier than that of the Sunnis, for
Abu Hanifa, the father of the Sunni code of
law, received his first instructions in jurispru-
dence from Imam Jafir Sadiq, the sixth Imam
of the Shias, but this learned doctor afterwards
separated from his teacher and established a
school of his own.

The differences between the Shia and Sunnis
are very numerous, but we will enumerate a
few of them.

1. The discussion as to the office of Imam,
already alluded to.

2. The Shias have a profound veneration
for Imam Ali, and some of their sects regard
him as an incarnation of divinity. They all
assert that next to the “prophet,” Ali is the
most excellent of men.

3. They observe the ceremonies of the
Muharram in commemoration of Ali, Hassan,
Hosein, and Bibi Fatimah, whilst the Sunnis

* A Digest of the Imamen code has been published by
Mr. N. B. E. Baillie. London, 1869.

173

only regard the tenth day of Muharram, the
Ashura, being the day on which God is said
to have created Adam and Eve, &c.

4. The Shias permit Mutah, or temporary
marriages, which are contracted for a limited
period and for a certain sum of money. The
Sunnis say that Muhammad afterwards can-
celled this institution.

5."The Shias include the Majusi, or fire
worshippers among the AAl-1-Kitab, or people
of the book, whilst Sunnis only acknowledge .
Jews, Christians, and Muslims, as Kitabiahs.

6. There are also various minor differences
in the ceremony of Salwat, or prayer, and in
the ablutions previous to prayer.

7. The Shias admit a principle of religious
compromise which is called Takia (lit. guard-
ing one self), a pious fraud, whereby the Shia
Muhammadan believes he is justified in either
smoothing down, or in denying the peculiarities
of his religious belief in order to save himself
from religious persecution. A Shia can there-
fore pass himself off as a Sunní, or even
curse the twelve Imams, in order to avoid
persecution.

174

XLIV.—THE WAHABIS.

This sect was founded by Muhammad, son
of Abdul Wahab, but as their opponents could
not call them Muhammadans, they have been
distinguished by the name of the father of the
founder of their sect, and are called Wahabis.*
Shekh Muhammad, son of Abdul Wahab, was
born at Ainia, a village of the province of Ared,
in the country of Nejed, in the year of the
Hijrah, 1115. He remained in his village
until he was of mature age, and was well
instructed by his father, Abdul Wahab, in the
Quran and the sacred Hadis. Abdul Wahab
was of the orthodox sect of the Hambalis.
Muhammad ibn Wahab performed the pilgrim-
age to Mecca in company with his father, and
at Medina he was instructed by Shekh Abdul-
lah, the son of Ibrahim, of Nejed. He accom-
panied his father to Harimala, and after his
father’s death he returned to his native village

* Vide a Wahabi Book, entitled, Sulh ul Aklwan, by Syud
Allama Daud, of Bagdad.

175

Ainia and assumed the position of a religious
leader. The religion and government of
Muhammad, son of Abdul Wahab, was a
Muhammadan puritanism joined: to a Bedouin
phylarchy, in which the chief is both the
political and religious leader of his people.
The whole of Eastern Arabia has embraced the
reformed doctrines of the Wahabis, and Mr.
Palgrave, in his account of his travels in those
parts, has given an interesting sketch of the
Wahābi religionists, although he is not always
correct as to the EE principles of their
religious creed.

In the great Wahābi revival, political inte-
rests were united with religious reform, as was
the case in the great puritan struggle in
England ; and the Wahābis soon pushed their
conquests over the whole of Arabia. In A.D.
1803 they conguered Mecca and Medina, and
for many years threatened the subjugation of
the whole Turkish Empire, but in 1811 a.p.
Muhammad Ali, the celebrated Pashah of
Egypt, commenced a war against the Wahabis,
and soon recovered Mecca and Medina, and in
1818 his son, Ibrahim Pashah, totally defeated

176

Abdullah, the Wahabi leader, and sent him a
prisoner to Constantinople, where he was
executed in the public square of St. Sophia,
December 19, 1818. But although the tem-
poral power of the Wahābis has been subdued,
they still continue secretly to propagate their
peculiar tenets, and in the present day there
are numerous disciples of the sect not only in
Arabia, but in Turkey and in India.

It is a movement which has influenced reli-
gious thought in every part of Islamism.

The leader of the Wahabi movement in
India was Syud Ahmad, who was born at Rai
Bareli, in the north-west provinces of India,
in 1786 a.p. He began life as a freebooter,
but about the year 1816 he gave up robbery
and commenced to study divinity in one of the
mosques at Delhi. After a few years study he
performed the pilgrimage to the sacred city,
and whilst at Mecca, attracted the notice of
the learned doctors to the similarity of his
teaching to that of the Wahabi sectaries, from
whom the city had suffered so much. He was
soon expelled from the town, and he returned
to India a fanatical disciple of the Wahabi

177

leader. His success as a preacher was great,
both in Bombay and Calcutta, and having col-
lected a numerous following from the ranks of
Islamism within British territory, he proceeded
to the north-west frontier of India, and preached
a Jihad, or Holy War, against the Sikhs. On
the 21st of December, 1826, the war against
the infidel Sikhs began, and almost every place
in the Peshawur valley is in some way asso-
ciated with this fanatical struggle. The
mission of this Wahabi leader was soon brought
to an untimely end, for in the battle of Balakot,
in May, 1831, when the fanatics were surprised
by a ‘Sikh army, under Sher Singh, their leader,
Syud Ahmad was slain.* But as in the case
of the Wahabi leader of Eastern Arabia, the
propagation of the religious tenets did not cease
with Syud Ahmad’s death, and within the last
thirty years Wahabyism has widely influenced
religious thought amongst the Muhammadans
of India. The people who hold the doctrines `
of the Wahabis do not always combine with

* The remnant of the Syud’s army formed the nucleus of
the Wahābi fanatics, who are now stationed at the village of

Polosi, on the banks of the Indus, on the north-west frontier
of British India.

178

them the fanatical spirit of either the son of
Abdul Wahab, or of Syud Almad Khan; they
speak of themselves as Ahl i Hadis, or the
people of the traditions, or those who interpret
the teaching of the Quran by the example of
Muhammad; but there can be but little doubt
that the religious principles of the Wahabis of
India are identical with those of the Wahabis of
_ Arabia, although it does not follow that they
are imbued with exactly the same fanatical
spirit. It must, however, be remembered that
there is no separation between Church and
State in the principles of Islamism, and that
Muhammadans only ceased to be fanatical and
disloyal under foreign rule when they are
certain that opportunities for resistance do not
exist. In the fatwa (decision) given by a
‘ number of learned doctors of Lucknow and
other places, dated 17th July, 1870, it was
stated that “iż is necessary that there should be
a probability of victory to the Musalman and
glory to the people of Hindustan. If there be no
such probability, the Jihad 1s unlawful.*

* Vide Hunter's Indian Musalman’s, Appendix II. Dr.
Badger, in his article in the Contemporary Review, June,

179

The Wahābis speak of themselves as Mohhid,
or Unitarians, and call all others Mushrik, or
those who associate another with God, and the
following are some of their distinctive religious
tenets :—

1. They do not receive the decisions of the
four orthodox sects, but say that any man who
can read and understand the Qurān and the
sacred Hadis can judge for himself in matters
of doctrine. They therefore reject Ijma’.

2. That no one but God can know the
secrets of men, and that prayers should not be
offered to any Prophet, Wali, Pir, or Saint;
but that God may be asked to grant a petition
for the sake of a saint.

3. That at the last day Muhammad will
obtain permissipn (722) of God to intercede for
his people. The Sunnis believe that permission
has already been given.

4, That it is unlawful to illuminate the
shrines of departed saints, or to prostrate before
them, or to perambulate (tawāf) round them.

1875, questions whether there is any real affinity between
the Wahabism of India and the Wahabism of Nejd. We
believe they are identical in principle and in spirit.

180

5. That women should not be allowed to
visit the graves of the dead on oe of their
immoderate weeping.

6. That only four festivals ought to be
observed, namely, "Id i Fitr, Id i Zoha, Ashura,
and Shab-barat. |

7. They do not observe the ceremonies of
Maulid, which are celebrated on the anniversary
of Muhammad’s birth.

8. They do not present offerings (Nazr) at
any shrine.

9. They count the ninety-nine names of God
on their fingers, and not on a rosary.

10. They understand the terms “sitting of
God,” and “ hand of God,” which occur in the
Quran in their literal (hagigi) sense, and not
figuratively (Majdzz), but at.the same time
they say it is not revealed how God sits, or in
what sense he has a hand, &c.*

* On this account the Christian doctrines of the Trinity .
and the Sonship of Christ do not present the same diffi-

culties to the mind of a Wahabi which they do to that
of a Sunni.

181

XLV.—JIHAD.

Jihad* is a religious war against the infidels,
as enjoined by Muhammad in the following
passages in the Quran :— |

Surat ul Nisa (VvI.).

“ Fight therefore for the religion of God.”
* * *

God hath indeed promised Paradise to every one,
But God hath preferred those who jight for the faith.

Surat ul Muhammad (XLVII. ).

Those who fight in defence of God’s true religion,
God will not suffer their works to perish.

Those who engage in war against the infidels
are called Ghdzis. The whole question of
Jihad has been fully discussed by Dr. W. W.
Hunter, of the Bengal Civil Service, in his
work entitled, “Indian Musalmans, which is

* Some Muhammadan divines say there are two Jihāds,
viz., Jihad i Akbar, or the greater Warfare, which is against
one’s own lusts, and Jihad i Asghar, or the lesser Warfare,
against infidels.

182

the result of careful enquiry as to the necessary
conditions of a Jihad or Cresentade, instituted
at the time of the excitement which existed in
India in 1870-71 in consequence of a supposed
Wahabi conspiracy for the overthrow of
Christian rule in that country. The whole
matter, according to the Sunni Musulmans,
hinges upon the question whether India is
Dar ul Harb, the land of enmity, or Dar ul
Islam, the land of Islamism.

The Muftis belonging to the Hanifi and
Shafai sects at Mecca decided that, “as long as
even some of the peculiar observances of [slim
prevail in a country, it is Dar wl Islam.”

The decision of the Mufti of the Maliki sect
was very similar, being to the following effect:

“A country does not become Dar ul Harb
as soon as it passes into the hands of the
infidels, but when all or most of the injunctions
of Islam disappear therefrom.”

The law doctors of North India decided.
that, “the absence of protection and liberty
to Musulmāns is essential in a Jihād or reli-
gious war, and that there should be a pro-
bability of victory to the armies of Islām.”

183

The Shia’ decision on the subject was as
follows: ‘‘ A Jihad is lawful only when the
armies of Islam are led by the rightful Imam,
when arms and ammunitions of war and
experienced warriors: are ready, when it is
against the enemies of God, when he who
. makes war is in possession of his reason, and
when he has secured the permission of his
parents and has sufficient money to meet the
expenses of his journey.”

The Sunnis and Shias alike believe in the
eventual triumph of Islam, when the whole
world shall become followers of the prophet of
Arabia; but whilst the Sunnis are of course
ready to undertake the accomplishment of
this great end, ** whenever there is a pro-
bability of victory to the Musulmāns,” the
Shias, true to the one great principle of their
sect, must wait until the appearance of a
rightful Imam.

Not very long ago a learned Muhammadan
Qazi (judge) was consulted by the writer of
these notes with reference to this interesting
question, namely, whether India is Dar ul

Islam, or Dar ul Harb. At first he replied

184

Dar ul Islam, and then after a short pause, he
said, ** Well, sir, may I tell you the truth?”
Upon being assured that the question was put
merely as one of theological enquiry, and not
for any political reasons, he replied, “ It is Dar
ul Harb.” One of his reasons for arriving at
* this conclusion was the well-known doctrine of
Islam that a Muslim cannot be a Zimm, or
one who pays tribute to an infidel power. We
believe that the fact that Muhammadans under
Christian rule are in an anomalous position is a
source of trouble to many a conscientious
Muslim. Many Muslims believe that Hijrat,
or flight, is incumbent upon every child of the
Faith who is under Kafir (infidel) rule, but, as
our friend the Gazi put it, ** Where are they to
go to?” The Muslim who abandons his
country under such circumstances is called a
Muhanr, i.e., a refugee.

XLVI.—MARTYRS.

The title of Shahid, or martyr, is given to

185

anyone who dies under the following circum-
stances :—

1. A soldier who dies in war for the cause
of Islam.

2. One who innocently meets with his death
from the hand of another.

3. The victim of a plague.

4. A person accidentally drowned.

5. One upon whom a wall may fall acci-
dentally.

6. A person burnt in a house on fire.

T. One who dies from hunger rather than eat
unlawful food. |

8. One who dies,on the pilgrimage to
Mecca.

If a martyr dies in war or is innocently mur-
dered, he is buried without the usual washing
before burial, as it is said that the blood of a
martyr is a sufficient ablution.

XLVII.—SLAVERY.

Slavery ('abudīyat) has been consecrated by
Muhammadan law, and some of its provisions

186

have been taken from the Mosaic code. The
traces of heathenism are, however, observable
in most of the Muslim laws with reference to
this question. For example, according to
Jewish law,* if a master slew his slave he was
liable to punishment, whereas the Islamic codef
annexes no worldly punishment for the murder
of a slave.

There is no limit to the number of slave
girls with whom a Muslim may cohabit, and it
is the consecration of this illimitable indulgence
which so popularizes slavery amongst Muham-
madan nations. Some Muslim writerst{ of the
present day contend that’ Muhammad looked
upon the custom as temporary in its nature,
and held that its extinction was sure to be
achieved by the progress of ideas and change
of circumstances; but the slavery of Islamism
is interwoven with the Law of marriage, the
Law of sale, and the Law of inheritance, of

* Exodus, xxi. 20.

+ Hidāya, xvīi. Book.

t Life of Muhammad, by Syud Ameer Ali, p. 257.

§ It is often said that the buying and selling of slaves is

not sanctioned by Islam ; this is not correct, as will be seen
upon reference to the Muhammadan Law of Sale.

187

the system, and its abolition would strike at
the very foundations of the code of Islamism.

Slavery is in complete harmony with the
spirit of Islamism, whilst it is abhorrent to
that of Christianity. That Muhammad amelio-
rated the condition of the slave, as it existed
under the heathen laws of Arabia, we cannot
doubt; but it is equally certain that the
Arabian legislator intended it to be a perpetual
institution.

The following traditions* with reference to
the action of the prophet in this matter are
notable :—

“Imran ibn Husain said a man freed six
slaves at his death, and he had no other pro-
perty besides, and the prophet called them, and
divided them into three sections, and then cast
lots, he then ordered that.two of them should
be freed, and he retained four in slavery, and
spoke severely of the man. who had set them
free.” 3
_ “ Jabir said we used to sell the uijā of
children in the time of the prophet and of Abu
Bakr, but Omer forbade it in his time.”

* Mishgat, Book xiii., c. xx., Pt. i.

188

For certain sins the manumission of slaves
is the legal penalty, and a slave may purchase
his own freedom with the permission of his
owner. |

In the Akhlāki Jilālī,* which is the popular
work upon practīcal philosophy amongst the
Muhammadans, it is said that “for service a
slave is preferable to a freeman, inasmuch as he
must be more disposed to submit, obey, and
adopt his patron’s habits and pursuits.”

Although slavery has existed side by side
with Christianity, it is undoubtedly contrary to
the spirit of the teaching of our divine Lord,
who has given to the world the grand doctrine
of universal brotherhood.

Mr. Lecky believes} that it was the spirit of
Christianity which brought about the abolition
of slavery in Europe. He says, ‘the services
of Christianity were of three kinds. It sup-
plied a new order of relations, in which the
distinction of classes was unknown. It im-
parted a moral dignity to the servile classes.

*Akhlāk i Jalālī, by Fakir Jani Muhammad Asaad,
Section vi.
+ History of European Morals, vol. ii. p. 70.

189

It gave an unexampled impetus to the move-
‘ment of enfranchisement.”

XLVIII..THE LORD JESUS CHRIST.

In the Quran our blessed Lord is spoken of
as ‘Isa (Jesus), and Masih (the Messiah). He
is also called Kalamatullah, the Word of God ;
Qaul ul Hagq, the Word of Truth; and Ru,
the Spirit (of God). Ruh Ullah, the Spirit of
God, being the special title, or Kalima, whereby
Jesus is distinguished from the other great
prophets. He is one “illustrious in this world
and in the next,” and “who has near access to
God.”* He is ** God’s apostle to confirm the
law, and to announce an apostle that should
come after, whose name shall be Ahmad.” t
He is said to have been born of Mary, the
sister of Aaron, and the daughter of Imran,
near the trunk of a palm tree. To have
spoken in his cradle, and to have performed
many miracles during his infancy; to have

* Surat ul Imran (111.) ver. 40.
+ Surat-ul-Saf (1.x1.) ver. 6.

190

cured the blind and the leper; to have chosen
apostles, and to have caused a table to descend’
from heaven both as “a festival and a sign
for them.” The Jews are said to have been
deceived by God, and to have crucified another
person instead of Jesus, who was taken up
into heaven, where he remains with his mother
in a lofty and quiet place, watered with
springs, until he shall come again in the last
day to convert the whole world to Islamism !

The rambling incoherent account of our
blessed Lord’s life as given in the Quran
would far exceed the limits of these “ Notes,”
but it will be found upon reference to the
following Suras or chapters:— .

An account of the birth of the Virgin
Mary—Sura iii. 33-37, 42-44.

Birth of Jesus announced to the Virgin
Mary—Sura ili. 45-48; xix. 16-21.

The birth of Jesus—Sura xix. 22-28.

The miracles of the Infancy—Sura xix.
29-32; iii. 48; v. 119.

His prophetical mission—Sura v. 87 ; xxxii.
7; xiii. 56-63; lxi. 6.

His choice of apostles—Sura iii.51-52 ; 1xi.14.

191

The Lord’s Table—Sura v. 121-124.

His Crucifixion—Sura iii. 53-54; iv. 156-
158; v. 119; xix. 32; m. 54.

His assumption with the Virgin Mary into
Paradise—Sura xxi. 52.

His Second Advent—Sura xliii. 59.

He must render an account of himself to
God—Sura xxiii. 7, 8; v. 118-119, 125, 127;
iv. 158. | |

XLIX.—THE CRUCIFIXION OF OUR
LORD AND SAVIOUR.

The following are the verses in the Quran
which allude to our blessed Lord’s crucifixion:

Surat ul Nisa, (iv.) 157.

“And for their saying (God hath sealed
them up)—‘ Verily we have slain the Messiah,
Jesus the son of Mary, and apostle of God.’
Yet they slew him not, and they crucified him
not, but they had only his likeness. And they
who differed about him were in doubt concern-
ing him: no sure knowledge had they about
him, but followed only an opinion, and they
did not really slay him, but God took him up
to Himself.”

192

Surat ul Maida, (v.)

“ They are infidels who say verily God is the
Messiah, the son of Mary. Say: And who
could obtain anything from God to the contrary
if chose to destroy the Messiah, the son of Mary
and his mother and the whole world also.”

Surat ul Imran, (iii.) 47-48. |

‘*The Jews plotted and God plotted: But of
those who plot is God the best. Remember
when God said, O Jesus! verily I will cause
thee to die and will take thee up to myself and
deliver thee from those who believe not;
and I will place those who follow thee above
those who believe not until the day of resur-
rection. Then to me is your return, and
wherein ye differ will I decide between you.”

Whilst all Muslim divines are agreed as to
the literal interpretation of these passages, there
is some difference as to the person crucified in
_ his stead. |

1. In the Tafsīr i Muzarī īt is said that
God took Christ in his human body to heaven
alive. |

2. In the Tafsir i Nasai, that Christ asked
one of his disciples to take his place.

193
8. In the Tafsir i Baghwi, that God trans-

formed Christ’s appearance to one of his

enemies, a spy, who was thus crucified in his
stead by mistake. |

4. In the Tafsir i Kalbi, that Titanūs was

crucified, God having transferred Christ’s

appearance to that person.

It will be seen that these commentators
have adopted the errors of the Basilidians, the
Cerinthians, and the Carpocrations, with refe-
rence to our Lord’s crucifixion.

Irenceus says that the Basilidians held that
Simon Cyrene was crucified instead of Christ.

The “ Cross of Christ ” is the missing link in
the Muslim’s creed.

We have already alluded (in Note XX XI.) to
the great anomaly of a religion which rejects
the doctrine of a sacrifice for sin, whilst its
great central feast is a Feast of Sacrifice.
Surely the ’Id-u-Zoha speaketh of better things
than the “ blood of Ismail.”

It is related by the Muslim historian Waqidi,
that Muhammad had such repugnance to the
sign of the cross, that he destroyed everything
brought to his house with that figure upon it.

194

L.—THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST AND
THE DOCTRINE OF THE HOLY
TRINITY.

The following are the allusions to the Holy
Trinity and the Sonship of Christ in the
Quran :—

Surat-ul-Nisa, (iv.) 169.

“OQ ye people of the Book! overstep not
bounds in your religion and of God, speak only
truth. The Messiah Jesus, son of Mary, is
only an apostle of God, and his Word which he
conveyed into Mary, and a Spirit proceeding
from himself. Believe, therefore, in God and
his apostles, and say not there is a Trinity (lit.
three). Forbear, it will be better for you.
God is only one God! Far be it from His
glory that He should have a son * * *
The Messiah disdaineth not to be a servant of
God.”

Surat ul Maida, (v.) 79.
“The Messiah, the son of Mary is but an

195
apostle, other apostles have flourished before
him, and his mother was a just person; they
both ate food.”

Verse 116 of the same Sura.

“ O Jesus, son of Mary, hast thou said unto
mankind, ‘Take me and my mother as two
Gods beside God ? ”

From the above verses it appears that
Muhammad thought the Holy Trinity of the
Christians consisted of the Father, the Son,
and the Virgin; and historians tell us that there
existed in Arabia a sect called Collyridians,
who considered the Virgin Mary a divine
person, and offered in worship to her a cake
called Collyris ; it is, therefore, not improbable
that Muhammad obtained his perverted notion
of the Holy Trinity from the existence of this
sect. From the expression “they both ate
food,” we must conclude that Muhammad had
but a sensuous idea of the Trinity in Unity,
and had never been instructed in the orthodox
faith with reference to this dogma.

In dealing with Muhammadans the Christian
missionary must not treat their system as
though the views of Islamism were precisely

196

those of modern Socinians.* Islamism admits
the miraculous conception of Christ, and that
he is the “ Word” which God “ conveyed unto
Mary ;” and whilst the other five great pro- -
phets are but “the chosen,” “the preacher,”
“the friend,” “the converser with,” and “ the
messenger” of God, Jesus is admitted to be the
“ Spirit of God.” He is the greatest miracle
worker of all the prophets, and whilst Muham-
mad is dead and buried, and saw corruption,
all Muslim divines admit that Jesus ‘‘saw no
corruption,” and still lives with a human body
in Paradise.

Moreover, it is said in the Hadīs that the
Nur-i-Muhammad, the’ light of Muhammad,
was created before all things which were made
by God. The pre-existence of the divine“ Word
which was made flesh and dwelt amongst us ”
is not therefore an idea foreign to the Muslim
mind.

* We speak of the views of modern Socinians, for we are
- aware that both the Socini, uncle and nephew, admitted the
_ miraculous conception of Christ, and said that He ought to
be worshipped. .

197

LI.—TAHRIF, OR THE CORRUPTION
OF THE SACRED BOOKS.

Tahrif is the word used by Muhammadan
writers to express the corruption of the sacred
scriptures of the Jews and Christians, as asserted
in the Quran.

Imam Fakhar-u-din Razi, in his commentary,
explains “ Tahrif” to mean, to change, alter,
or turn aside anything from the truth. Muslim
divines say there are two kinds of Tahrif,
namely, Zahrif 1 M’anawi, a corruption of the
meaning; and Tahrif i Lafzi, a corruption of
the words.

Muhammadan controversialists, when they
become acquainted with the nature of the
contents of our sacred books, and of the impos-
sibility of reconciling the contents of the Quran
with those of the sacred scriptures, charge the
Christians with the Zahrif2 Lafzi. They say
the Christians have expunged the word Ahmad,
from the prophecies, and have inserted the
expression “ Son of God,” and the story of the
crucifixion, death, and resurrection of our

198

Blessed Lord. This view, however, is not the
one held by the most celebrated of the Muslim
commentators.

Imam Muhammad Ismail Bokhari, writes in
his book that “the word Tahrif (corruption)
signifies to change a thing from its original
nature; and that there .is no man who could
corrupt a single word of what proceeded from
God, so that the Jews and Christians could
corrupt only by misrepresenting the meaning of
the words of God.”

Ibn i Mansūr and Ibn Abbi Hatim, state in
the commentary known as the Tafsir Durr-i-
Mansur, that they have it on the authority of
Ibn i Munia, that the Zaurāt (i.e., the Books of
` Moses) and the Injil (1.e., the Gospels) are in
the same state of purity m which they were
sent down from heaven, and that no alterations
had been made in them, but that the Jews
were wont to deceive the people by unsound
arguments, and by wresting the sense of
Scripture.

Shah Wali Ullah, in his commentary the
Fazil Kabir, and also Ibn Abbas, — the

same view.

199

This appears to be the correct interpretation
of the various verses of the Quran charging the
Jews with having corrupted the meaning of the
sacred Scriptures.

For example, Surat ul Imraim (11.) ver. 78,
* There are certainly some of them who read
the Scriptures perversely that ye may think
what they read to be really in the Scriptures,
yet it is not in the Scriptures; and they say
this is from God, but it is not from God; and
they speak that which is false concerning God
against their own knowledge.”

Imam Fakhar u din in his commentary on
this verse, and many others of the same cha-
racter which occur in the Quran, says it refers
to a Tahrif 1 M’anawi, and that it does not
mean that the Jews altered the text, but
merely that they made alterations in the course
of reading.

But whilst all the old akti who
„_most probably had never seen a copy of the
sacred Books of the Jews and Christians, only
charge us with a Tahrīf Manavī, still all
modern controversialists amongst the Muham-

200

madans contend for a Tahrif i Lafzī, as being
the only solution of the difficulty.

In dealing with such opponents, the Christian
divine will avail himself of the following argu-
ments :— ! |

1. The Quran does not charge the Jews and
Christians with corrupting the text of their
sacred Books, and all the learned Muslim com-
mentators admit that such is not the case.

2. The Quran asserts that the Holy Scrip-
tures of the Jews and Christians existed in the
days of Muhammad, who invariably speaks of
them with reverence and respect. !

3. There now exist manuscripts of the old
and new Testaments of an earlier date than
that of Muhammad (A.». 610-632).

4. There are versions of the old and new
Testament now extant, which existed before
Muhammad, for example, the Septuagint, the
Latin Vulgate, the Syriac, the Coptic, and the
` Armenian versions.

5. The Hexapla, or Octapla of Origen, which
dates four centuries before Muhammad, gives
various versions of the old Testament Scriptures
in parallel columns.

201

6. The Syrian Christians of St. Thomas* of
Malabar and Travancore, in the south of India,
who were separated from the western world for
centuries, possess the same Scriptures.

7. In the works of Justin Martyr, who lived
from A.D. 103 to 167, there are numerous quo-
tations from our sacred books, which prove that
they were exactly the same as those we have
now. The same may be said of other early
Christian writers.

Muhammadan controversialists of the present
day urge that the numerous readings which
exist in the Christian books are a proof that.
they have been corrupted. But these do not
affect in the least the main pomts at issue
between the Christian and the Muslim. The
Divine Sonship of Christ, the Fatherhood of
God, the Crucifixion, Death, and Resurrection ©
of Christ, and the Atonement, are all clearly
stated in almost every book of the New Tes-
tament, whilst they are rejected by the
Quran.

* That Christians existed in India at a very early period
is plain from the fact that a Bishop of India signed his name
at the Council of Nice, A.D. 8265.

202

The most plausible of modern objections
urged by Muslim Divines is, that the Christians
have lost the Injil which was sent down from
heaven to Jesus, and that the New Testament
contains merely the Hadis or Sunna—the
traditions handed down by Matthew, Mark, |
Luke, John, Paul, and others. It is of course
a mere assertion, unsupported by any proof,
but it appears to be a line of argument which
commends itself to Syud Ahmad Khan, C.S.I.*
and also to Syud Ameer Ali Moulvie, M.A.,
LL.B.f The latter professes to be a Muham-
madan rationalist, but as Islamism is a system
of the most positive dogma, it does not admit
either of rationalism or “ free thought.” Syud
Ahmad and Ameer Ali no more represent the
Muhammadanism of the Quran and the Tra-
ditions, than the opinions of Mr. Voysey repre-
sent the teaching of orthodox Christianity.

“Islamism is in itself stationary, and was
framed thus to remain. Sterile like its God,

* Vide The Muhammadan Commentaries on the Holy
Bible, Part I. by Syud Ahmad Khan, C.S.I. Ghazeepore,
1862. |
+ Vide The Life and Teachings of Muhammad, by Syud
Ameer Ali Moulvie, M.A., LL.B., of the Inner Temple,
Barrister-at-Law. London, 1878.

203

lifeless like its first principle in all that con-
stitutes life—for life is love, participation, and
progress, and of these the Coranic Deity has
none, it justly repudiates all change, all deve-
lopment. To borrow the forcible words of
Lord Houghton, the written book is there the
dead man’s hand, stiff and motionless, whatever
savours of vitality is by that alone convicted of
heresy and defection.”*

* Palgrave’s Arabia, Vol. i. p. 872.

204

AN INDEX OF THE TECHNICAL TERMS
WHICH OCCUR IN THE BOOK.

Abid, 105.
Abudiyat, 163, 184.
Ahadīs, 9.

Ahl i Kitab, 9, 100.
Al Kitab, 11.

Al Moshaf, 11.
Akhiri Chahar Shamba, 117.
Allah, 160.

Allah, 100.

Amm, 18, 19.
Ansar, 41. .

Arfa, 116.

Asahab, 41.

Ashag, 165.

Ashūr Khāna, 114.
Ashura, 80, 113.
Asur, 72.
Attahiyat, 69.
Ayat, 16.

Aysha, 72.

Ayyam ul Tashriq, 90.
Azan, 65, 74.

Azad, 139.

Bagr-i-īd, 109.
Bāra Wafāt, 117.
Ba Shara, 139.
Be Shara, 139.
Bismillah, 69, 99.

Chast, 72.
Chistia, 141.

Dalālat, 21.
Dār-ul-Jalāl, 56.
Dar-ul-Salam, 56.
Dar-ul-Qarar, 56.
Dār-ul-Islām, 182.
Dār-ul-Harb, 182.
Darūt, 69, 120.
Darvesh, 139.
Dīgar, 72.
Dozakh, 58.

Dua’, 70, 64.

Fajar, 72.

'Fakīb, 104.

Fanā, 165.

Fagīr, 105, 138.

Farz Kafae, 97.

Farz, 65, 70, 92.
Fatwāh, 100.
Fatihah, 66, 117, 129.
Fikah, 11, 107.
Fitrat, 97.

Gharīb, 32.
Ghaus, 105.
Ghazi, 181.
Ghusal, 65.

Hadis, 9, 30, 106.
Hadd, 93.

Hajr ul Aswad, 88.
Haji, 91.

Hajj, 86.

Hakim, 104.

Halal, 99.
Hambali, 42,
Hanifi, 42.
Hagīgat, 21, 164.
Harām, 93.

Hasan, 32.
Hāshiyah, 108.
Hattama, 59.
Hawia, 59.

Hijrat, 1, 184.
Hujjat ul Islam, 63.

Tbarat, 21.

Iblis, 49.
Id-ul-Fitr, 108.
Id-u-Zoha, 109.
Idgah, 109, 112.
Tfrit, 49.

Ihrām, 88.

Ijāb, 118.

Ijma’, 9, 40.
1lm-i-Tajwīd, 17.
Ilm-i- Usūl, 18.
Ilhām, 29.

Ilhām Rabbāni, 29.
Illat, 44.
1lm-i-Hadīs, 81.
Iman, 44.

Iman Mujmil, 44.
Iman Mufassal, 44.
Imam Mahdi, 55.

Imam, 103, 169, 170.

Imām Bāra, 114.
Injil, 52, 202.
Igāmat, 65, 75.
Igtizā, 21.
Ishag, 164, 167.
Ishārat, 21.
Islām, 8.
Istighfār, 120.
Istimal, 20.

205

ĖS

Istidlal, 21.
Ishrāg, 72.

Itigāf, 78.
Itifaq-i-Qaul, 40.
Itifaq-i- Fi’), 40.
Itifag-i-Sagūt, 40.
Itifāg-i-Tagrīri, 40.
Izn, 179. .

Jabrūt, 166.
Jahannam, 58.
Jalalia, 141.

Jama” Musjid, 109.
Jamra, 90.

Jānn, 49.
Jannat-ul-Marāt, 56.
Jannat-ul-Khuld, 56.
Jannat-ul-Nāim, 56.
Jannat-ul-Firdaus, 56.
Janāza, 122.

Jihād, 177, 181.
Jihād-i-Akbar, 181.
Jihād-i- Asghar, 181.
Jinn, 49.

Juhin, 59.

Juma’, 73.

Kaaba, 88, 111.
Kabira, 95:
Kalima, 61, 121.
Kalama!ullah, 189.
Kalīm-Ullah, 51.
Karīna, 19.
Khabr-i- Wāhid, 34.
Khafi, 20.
Khalīl-Ullah, 51.
Khāss, 18.

Khatīb, 131.
Khuttan, 72.
Khusūs-ul Jinng, 18.
Khusūs-u-Nawa, 18.
Khutbah, 131.
Khusis-ul-’ain, 18.
Kinaiah, 21.
Kirīm-ul-Kātibin, 47.
Kitāb, 52.

Kitabiah, 178.

Kuff, 24, 96.

Lahadd, 129.
Lāhut, 166.

Laylut-ul-Qadr, 78, 116.

Larwa, 58.

Madarris, 104.
Maghrib, 72.
Mahr, 120.
Makruh, 93, 99.
Majāz, 21.
Majusi, 173.
Majzūb, 139.
Mallang, 141.!
li 166.
Maliki, 42

Ma rifat, 164.
Mashūr, 33.
Māshuk, 165.
Matam, 113.
Matan, 108.
Mihrāb, 136.
Mimbar, 1381.
Migāt, 88.

Mir, 106.
Mitragat, 48.
Mohid, 179.
Momin, 9.
Moulvie, 104.
Miswāk, 98.
Miyān, 106.
Mudarīa, 141.
Muezzan, 74, 181.
Mufassar, 19.
Mufsid, 93.
Mufti, 103.
Muhārjirīn, 41.
Muhajir, 184.
Muharram, 113.
Muhaggig, 104.
Muhbah, 93.
Muhkam, 20.
Mujtahid, 9, 104, 171.

206

Mujmal, 20.
Muawwal, 18, 19. i
Mua’ gibbat, 47.
Mulla, 104.

Munkir, 4 , 129.
Munajat, 70, 109.
Mugtū, 33.
Murāgaba, 152.
Murtidd, 94.
Murshid, 146, 153, 163.
Mursal, 33.

Murfū, 33.

Murīd, 146, 158, 162.
Musalmān, 9.
Muslim, 9.

Mushkil, 20.
Mushrik, 179.

Musjid ul Haram, 88.
Mushtarak, 18, 19.
Mustahib, 93.
Mutawatir, 33.
Mutashābih, 20.
Mutah, 119, 173.

Nabi Ullab, 51.
Nafal, 65, 70.
Nafi-isbāt, 154.
Nagshbandīa, 140.
Nahw, 108.

Nakīr, 48, 129.
Namāz, 63.
Nārawā, 92.

Nass, 19.

Nāsūt, 163.

Nazr, 180.

Nasuā, 133.
Nikah, 118.
Niyyat, 65.
Nmuz, 63.

Nur i Muhammad, 196.

Peshīn, 72.
Pīr, 105.

Qabil, 118.
Qadam-i-Ibrahim, 89.
Qadiria, 140.

Ģaul ul Hagg, 189.

Qazi, 103,

Qaza, 77.

Qiam i Sami Ullah, 67.
Qiam, 66.

Qiamat, 53.

Qiās, 9, 43.

Quran Majid, 11.
Quran Sharif, 11.
Qul, 120.

Quran, 11.
Qurbani ‘id, 110.

Rakat, 71, 77.
Ramazan, 76.

Rawa, 92.

Rawayat, 33.

Rayan 76.

Ruh Ullah, 62, 189.
Ruku', 16.
Rummi-ul-Jammar, 90.
Rusul Ullah, 52.

Sadaga, 84, 85, 108.
Saghira, 95.

Sahih sita, 171.
Sahifa, 52.

Sahih, 32.

Sahib i Nissab, 82.
Salat ul Istikhara, 74.
Salat ul Tarawih, 73.
Salat ul Khauf, 73.
Salat ul Musafir, 73.
Salat ul Jum’a, 73.
Salam, 70, 101.

. Sālik, 139.

Sagūr, 59.

Sarf, 108.

Sarwardia, 141.
Sarīh, 21.

Seyar, 107.

Shara’, 139.

Sālik, 108.

Shab Qadr, 116
Shab barat, 116.
Shadi, 118.

207

Shafai, 42.
Shahid, 184.
Shan, 72.

Sharh 108.
Shariat, 163.
Shekh, 105.

Sift ul Iman, 121.
Shia’, 10, 169.
Shitan, 49.

Sipara, 16.
Silsilah, 140.
Sirat, 56.

Subah, 72.

Sufi, 162.

Sufi- Ullah, 51.
Suir, 59.

Sula, 63.

Sunni, 10.

Sunna, 10, 30.
Sunnat, 65, 70, 92.
Sunnat i Fali, 92.
Sunnat i Qaul, 93.
Sunnat i Tagrīri, 93.
Sura, 13.

Surma, 115.

Syud, 106.

Taba’ Tabain, 41.
Tabain, 41.

Tabib, 104.

Tābūt, 115.

Tafsir, 107.

Tahmīd, 160.

Tahlil, 161.

Tahrif, 197.

Tahrif i M’anawi, 197.
Tahrīf i Lafzī, 197.
Tahajud, 72.

Takiya, 147.

'Takīa, 173.

Takbir i Qa’ud, 68.
Takbir i Qiam, 68.
Takbir i Jalsa, 68.
Takbir i Rukv’ 67.
Takbir i Tahrimah, 65.
Takbir, 65, 126, 161.
Talag, 122.

208

Tālib, 163. i Wājib, 92.
Tagdīr, 59. Wajd, 164.
Tarāwīh, 78. Walī, 105.
Tarwīah, 89. Wasl, 164.
Tariqat, 139. Wazu, 65.
Tasbih, 155, 161. Witar, 70.
Tasmiah, 66.
Tasbih i Sijda, 68. Zabūr, 52.
Tazia, 115. Zahir, 19.
Tazir, 94. Zahid, 105.
Tawaf, 89. Zaif, 32.
Taiz, 66. Zakat, 81.
Towrat, 52. Zakir, 154.
Zarb, 151.
Urs, 118. Zāt, 23.
Us salam u alekam, 101. Zimmi, 184.
Usūl, 11, 106. Zikr, 149 . |
Zikr-i- Khafī, 149.
Wahi, 28. Zikr-i-Jili, 149.
Wahi-rabbāni, 28. Zobar, 72.
Wahi-galb, 29. Zoha, 72.
Wahi-ghair-Matlū, 39. Zudh, 164.
Wahabi, 174.

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Full text of "05. Encyc Islam. New Ed Prep Num Lead Orient. Ed Ed Com Con. Bos Don Lew Pel.etc. Und Pat IUA.v 5. Khe Mah. Phot Repr. Leid. EJBrill. 1986."

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